Seismicity at a deep hard rock mine can be a precursor to ground failure events. Seismicity data can be used in double-difference tomography, which produce tomograms showing velocity distributions in the rock mass that can be used to infer relative stress of the rock mass. The data set used for the double-difference tomography inversion was from Creighton Mine in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and consisted of two months of data averaging 150 microseismic events per day. Three separate studies were conducted to evaluate the applications of double-difference tomography on a deep hard rock mine. These studies produced mine scale tomograms, stope scale tomograms of two active stopes, and stope scale tomograms for a cluster of events. TomoDD was used for the tomographic inversion, with other commercial programs used to view the results. All three studies produced results consistent with prior mine knowledge and basic concepts of rock mass stress redistribution. Mine scale tomograms accurately displayed a low velocity where the mined ore body is known to be with adjacent high velocity, stope scale tomograms of the two stopes both correctly demonstrated a low velocity relaxed zone near the stope following a production blast, and stope scale tomograms of an event cluster displayed consistency in results for two clusters in periods before, during, and after each cluster. The three studies show that double-difference tomography is a promising tool for observing rock mass stress redistribution that provides a baseline evaluation for the potential uses of the technology in a deep hard rock mine. / Master of Science

The ground water regimes of three small, undisturbed (natural) and accessible hard rock catchments representing the South, Midlands and the North of Great Britain have been hydrogeologically investigated and compared. There is a dearth of hydro geological information on hard rock areas in Britain. This is because the general availability of surface water and extensive sedimentary aquifers has not encouraged ground water prospecting in hard rock areas. In view of this, low flow study was considered essential since geology exerts a great influence on its characteristics. This was carried out using baseflow recession analysis. From a combination of practical, empirical and theoretical considerations aided by statistical analysis on a computer, baseflow recession constants which dynamically reflect the physiographic and geologic controls within a catchment were derived for the catchments investigated. These were used to characterise the behaviour of the low flows. A new method which is free of random selection of data for baseflow recession analysis is presented and a model for the curve fitting both by computer and manual methods are fully discussed and its application is also presented. Water balance computations for each of the three catchments is presented in chapter 2. Lithological units were identified by a detailed geological study. These were further investigated using resistivity and electromagnetic methods of geophysical survey. Hydrogeological properties of the aquifers were investigated by pumping test analysis and subsequent comparison of hydraulic conductivities from soils and baseflow studies. A water chemistry investigation of spring, river and rain waters has been carried out to try and defme flow paths of the ground water and this is presented in chapter 7. From these investigations, this research concludes that large community water supplies through boreholes can be economical only in one of the catchments (East Dart catchment). In the other two catchments (Blackbrook and Calder catchments), small community and household supplies are possible through boreholes (in some areas) and large diameter wells.

During several decades considerable research activities have been conducted with respect to fires in coal mines, but the research activities with respect to hard rock mines have been limited. As the hard rock mines are getting more complex the need for deeper understanding of fires in underground hard rock mines are getting more in demand. The more urgent demands are the need for more specific heat release rate curves as design fires, applicable fire experiments and any method that would allow for the calculation of the total heat release rate curve of an object. This thesis presents a number of examples on design fire curves applicable to underground hard rock mines; it also presents the results of model scale fire experiments and methods for calculating the total heat release rate of several objects at uniform as well as non-uniform conditions. Tests were carried out in a model scale tunnel using wooden pallets as fire load. The parameters tested were the distance between piles of pallets and longitudinal ventilation rate. It was found that an increasing ventilation rate also increases the peak heat release rate. When studying the curves of heat release rates it was found that when the distance between the ignited pile and the second pile increased to a certain level the delayed ignition of the second pile will result in that the peak heat release rate of the adjacent piles will not occur simultaneously. The ignition data indicated that the ignition time of adjacent piles decreased as the longitudinal ventilation increased.  A method using a critical heat flux as ignition criterion exhibited very good agreement with the corresponding experiments for both uniform as well as non-uniform conditions. The methods using the ignition temperature as ignition criterion did not agree very well with any of the corresponding experiments. / GRUVAN

The goal of this thesis is to understand perception of the Hard Rock brand in the Czech Republic among university students. Hard Rock Cafe Prague is a combination of a restaurant, bar, and rock club operated by the hospitality corporation Hard Rock International. The studied segment can be seen as a group of potential customers in long term, and this research should identify opportunities for growth of Czech guests. The thesis presents the process and results of Hard Rock brand research on the selected segment. The work is supported by theory of marketing of services, brand, and methodology of marketing research. The practical part includes two phases of research: qualitative and quantitative. Analysis of both phases and their implications on formulated hypotheses lead to conclusions regarding perception of Hard Rock brand by the studied segment. These are further analyzed to offer a number of recommendations for future marketing communication activities targeted towards the local customers.

The use of seismic methods in hard rock environments in Western Australia for mineral exploration is a new and burgeoning technology. Traditionally, mineral exploration has relied upon potential field methods and surface prospecting to reveal shallow targets for economic exploitation. These methods have been and will continue to be effective but lack lateral and depth resolution needed to image deeper mineral deposits for targeted mining. With global need for minerals, and gold in particular, increasing in demand, and with shallower targets harder to find, new methods to uncover deeper mineral reserves are needed. Seismic reflection imaging, hard rock borehole data analysis, seismic inversion and seismic attribute analysis all give the spatial and volumetric exploration techniques the mineral industry can use to reveal high value deeper mineral targets. / In 2002, two high resolution seismic lines, the East Victory and Intrepid, were acquired along with sonic logging, to assess the feasibility of seismic imaging and rock characterisation at the St. Ives gold camp in Western Australia. An innovative research project was undertaken combining seismic processing, rock characterization, reflection calibration, seismic inversion and seismic attribute analysis to show that volumetric predictions of rock type and gold-content may be viable in hard rock environments. Accurate seismic imaging and reflection identification proved to be challenging but achievable task in the all-out hard rock environment of the Yilgarn craton. Accurate results were confounded by crocked seismic line acquisition, low signal-to-noise ratio, regolith distortions, small elastic property variations in the rock, and a limited volume of sonic logging. Each of these challenges, however, did have a systematic solution which allowed for accurate results to be achieved. / Seismic imaging was successfully completed on both the East Victory and Intrepid data sets revealing complex structures in the Earth as shallow as 100 metres to as deep as 3000 metres. The successful imaging required homogenization of the regolith to eliminate regolith travel-time distortions and accurate constant velocity analysis for reflection focusing using migration. Verification of the high amplitude reflections within each image was achieved through integration of surface geological and underground mine data as well as calibration with log derived synthetic seismograms. The most accurate imaging results were ultimately achieved on the East Victory line which had good signal-to-noise ratio and close-to-straight data acquisition direction compared to the more crooked Intrepid seismic line. / The sonic logs from both the East Victory and Intrepid seismic lines were comprehensively analysed by re-sampling and separating the data based on rock type, structure type, alteration type, and Au assay. Cross plotting of the log data revealed statistically accurate separation between harder and softer rocks, as well as sheared and un-sheared rock, were possible based solely on compressional-wave, shear-wave, density, acoustic and elastic impedance. These results were used successfully to derive empirical relationships between seismic attributes and geology. Calibrations of the logs and seismic data provided proof that reflections, especially high-amplitude reflections, correlated well with certain rock properties as expected from the sonic data, including high gold content sheared zones. The correlation value, however, varied with signal-to-noise ratio and crookedness of the seismic line. Subsequent numerical modelling confirmed that separating soft from hard rocks can be based on both general reflectivity pattern and impedance contrasts. / Indeed impedance inversions on the calibrated seismic and sonic data produced reliable volumetric separations between harder rocks (basalt and dolerite) and softer rock (intermediate intrusive, mafic, and volcaniclastic). Acoustic impedance inversions produced the most statistically valid volumetric predictions with the simultaneous use of acoustic and elastic inversions producing stable separation of softer and harder rocks zones. Similarly, Lambda-Mu-Rho inversions showed good separations between softer and harder rock zones. With high gold content rock associated more with “softer” hard rocks and sheared zones, these volumetric inversion provide valuable information for targeted mining. The geostatistical method applied to attribute analysis, however, was highly ambiguous due to low correlations and thus produced overly generalized predictions. Overall reliability of the seismic inversion results were based on quality and quantity of sonic data leaving the East Victory data set, again with superior results as compared to the Intrepid data set. / In general, detailed processing and analysis of the 2D seismic data and the study of the relationship between the recorded wave-field and rock properties measured from borehole logs, core samples and open cut mining, revealed that positive correlations can be developed between the two. The results of rigorous research show that rock characterization using seismic methodology will greatly benefit the mineral industry.

The effect of corrosion on the performance of rock support and reinforcement in Australian underground mines has not been widely researched and is generally not well understood. This is despite the number of safety concerns and operational difficulties created by corrosion in reducing the capacity and life expectancy of ground support. This thesis aims to investigate corrosion and relate how the environmental conditions in Australian underground hard rock mines impact on the service life of rock support and primarily rock reinforcement. Environmental characterisation of underground environments was completed at a number of mine sites located across Australia. This provided an improved understanding of the environmental conditions in Australian underground hard rock mines. Long-term testing on the impact of corrosion on the load bearing capacity of reinforcement and support under controlled experimental conditions was conducted in simulated underground environments. Rock reinforcement elements were examined in-situ by means of overcoring of the installed reinforcement and surrounding rock mass. Laboratory testing of the core determined changes in load transfer properties due to corrosion damage. These investigations provided an excellent understanding of the corrosion processes and mechanisms at work. Corrosion rates for a range of underground environments were established through the direct exposure and evaluation of metallic coupons in underground in-situ and simulated environments. / It was found that the study of corrosion is challenging due to the time required to gather meaningful data. In particular, the wide range of materials that comprise ground support systems means that it is impossible to examine all the possible combinations of variables and their potential influence on the observed levels of corrosion and measured corrosion rates. Despite these challenges, the systematic investigation has resulted in new corrosivity classifications for both groundwater and atmospheric driven corrosion processes for various reinforcement and support systems used in the Australian underground mining industry. Previous corrosivity classifications were not found applicable. Furthermore, these new corrosivity classifications are simpler than previous classifications and corrosion rates may be predicted from readily obtained measurements of ground water dissolved oxygen and atmospheric relative humidity. Different types of reinforcement and surface support systems have been rated with respect to their corrosion resistance and estimates have been made for the expected service life for various rates of corrosion.

The Skellefte District (SD) is one of the richest metallogenic mining areas in Sweden. The main deposits consist of volcanic-hosted massive sulphides (VHMS) rich in zinc, copper, lead, gold and silver, that have been explored and mined for more than a century. Considering that technological advancements allow deeper mining, and that today new discoveries rarely occur, renewed efforts are now directed at locating targets at greater depths.   Thus, current exploration strategies need to be adapted, and a better understanding of regional scale structures is necessary. To address these questions the project VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District was launched. Its main purpose is to unravel the regional structures and tectonic setting of the SD. To accomplish this, new geological and geophysical data have been acquired in two key localities. This thesis presents the contribution from 2D and 3D inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data and seismic reflection data. The main findings include: conductive hydrothermally altered zones within the otherwise resistive rocks of the Skellefte Group, the depth extension of early and postorogenic intrusions, prominent shear zones in the central part of the district, and enhanced reflectivity and conductivity at the base of the Skellefte Group throughout the SD. Even though the application of these methods is challenged by the complex geological setting of the SD, it is shown that after a careful processing and analysis of the data, they are able to provide a robust image of the deep subsurface. Additionally, the combination of reflection seismics and MT has proved to be a powerful tool for hypothesis testing and to develop the general understanding of the configuration and history of the SD. Furthermore, two 3D inversion models of MT data are presented and compared with the results of standard 2D determinant inversions. The 3D procedure shows significant improvements in data fit and is able to constrain better the observed model features. Although 3D inversion of MT data is not yet a run of the mill scheme and issues like model assessment and galvanic distortion effects need to be further addressed, results from complex environments with areal coverage, are already superior to those from 2D inversions. / Skellefteåfälten är ett av de viktigaste malmdistrikten i Sverige. Malmkropparna består av vulkaniskvärda Massiva Sulfider (VHMS) rika på Zink, Koppar, Bly, Guld och Silver, och har utforskats och brutits i mer än ett sekel. Med tanke på att de senaste tekniska framstegen tillåter djupare brytning, och att nya upptäckter är ovanliga idag, riktas nya ansträngningar mot att lokalisera malm på större djup. Aktuella prospekteringsstrategier måste därför anpassas, och en bättre förståelse av regionala strukturer är nödvändig. För att lösa dessa frågor lanserades projektet VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District. Dess främsta syfte är att utreda de regionala strukturerna och det tektoniska läget av Skelleftefältet. För att uppnå detta, har nya geologiska och geofysiska data insamlats vid två viktiga platser i distriktet. Denna avhandling presenterar bidrag från inversionsmodellering i 2D och 3D av magnetotelluriska (MT) data samt resultaten av en reflektionsseismisk profil. De viktigaste resultaten är: bra ledande hydrotermiskt förändrade zoner inom de annars resistiva bergarterna i Skellefte-gruppen, djupet till tidiga och postorogeniska intrusioner, framstående skjuvzoner i den centrala delen av området, och ökad reflektionsförmåga och konduktivitet vid basen av Skellefte-gruppen i hela fältet. Även om tillämpningen av dessa metoder utmanas av fältens komplexa geologiska läge, visas det efter en noggrann bearbetning och analys av data att de ger en robust bild av den lite djupare berggrunden. Dessutom har kombinationen av reflektionsseismik och MT visat sig vara ett kraftfullt verktyg för hypotesprövning och för att utveckla den allmänna förståelsen av Skelleftefältet och dess historia. Därutöver presenteras två 3D inversionsmodeller av MT data och jämförs sedan med resultaten från 2D determinantinversioner. 3D tekniker visar betydande förbättringar av datapassform och begränsar observerade anomalier bättre. Även om 3D inversion av MT data ännu inte är en vanlig teknik och frågor som modellbedömning och galvaniska distorsionseffekter måste behandlas ytterligare, är resultat från komplexa miljöer med lagom yttäckning redan överlägsna. / VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District

Les outils de la télédétection, de la géomorphologie et de l’hydrogéochimie ont été utilisés pour caractériser la circulation des eaux souterraines dans les aquifères de socle d’une partie du bassin versant du Sassandra située dans le Sud-Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire. La distribution des espacements entre les linéaments observés obéit à un processus de poisson et il a été estimé que 17 % de linéaments de taille inférieure à 2,1 km n’ont pas été cartographiés. Ce champ de linéaments a été étudié par analyse d’image pour aboutir à une structuration des aquifères en blocs individualisés. Cette approche a permis d’étudier de l’hydrodynamisme dans les aquifères discontinus à l’échelle locale. Les conditions d’emmagasinement et de circulation des eaux souterraines ont été approchées par l’utilisation des ions majeurs de l’eau. Les eaux calciques, peu ou moyennement minéralisées, sont issues des zones en amont du bassin versant où la recharge des nappes, se fait assez vite à travers certains chemins préférentiels. Les eaux sodiques sont localisées pour la majorité en aval du bassin versant où l’infiltration des eaux fortement évaporées et les échanges des cations prédominent. Les terrains présentent des altitudes s’échelonnant de 70 m à 210 m avec des pics ponctuels par endroits qui s’élèvent jusqu’à 450 m avec et des pentes qui oscillent de 2 à 4 %. L’analyse des épaisseurs d’altérites met en évidence un contrôle par la lithologie et une épaisseur est moins forte dans les vallées des principaux cours d’eau. La modélisation piézométrique montre que le bassin versant hydrogéologique reproduit le bassin versant hydrologique à une dizaine de mètres de profondeur avec quelques variations. / Remote sensing, geomorphology, and hydrogeochemistry methods were used to characterize the ground water flow in this part of the Sassandra River watershed that lies in the Southwest of Ivory Coast. The distribution of the spacing between the lineaments obeys a process of Poisson which allowed estimating that 17 % of lineaments of size inferior to 2.1 km were not mapped. This network of lineaments has been analysed in order to obtain a statistical characterisation of the geometry of the aquifer blocs in the bedrock. This approach allowed studying the hydrodynamism to the local scale. The groundwater is mainly of type Ca-HCO3 or Na-HCO3. The conditions of the groundwater storage and circulation in the bedrock are studied here by using major ions. The calcic water, little or moderately mineralized is ensued from some zones of the watershed where the recharge is quite fast through some preferential paths. The sodic water is largely located at the downstream of the watershed, where the water infiltration strongly evaporated, and the cations exchange are the prevailing phenomena. The altitudes of the grounds spreading out from 70 to 210 m, with some punctual peaks of 450 m in places, and some slopes ranging from 2 to 4%. The regolith thickness pointed out a control by the lithology, and a layer less thick in the main stream’s channel valleys. From borehole data and the water level in the hydrographical network, we show that the hydrogeological watershed is a subdued version of the hydrological watershed at a depth of 10 m with some variations.

Les outils de la télédétection, de la géomorphologie et de l’hydrogéochimie ont été utilisés pour caractériser la circulation des eaux souterraines dans les aquifères de socle d’une partie du bassin versant du Sassandra située dans le Sud-Ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire. La distribution des espacements entre les linéaments observés obéit à un processus de poisson et il a été estimé que 17 % de linéaments de taille inférieure à 2,1 km n’ont pas été cartographiés. Ce champ de linéaments a été étudié par analyse d’image pour aboutir à une structuration des aquifères en blocs individualisés. Cette approche a permis d’étudier de l’hydrodynamisme dans les aquifères discontinus à l’échelle locale. Les conditions d’emmagasinement et de circulation des eaux souterraines ont été approchées par l’utilisation des ions majeurs de l’eau. Les eaux calciques, peu ou moyennement minéralisées, sont issues des zones en amont du bassin versant où la recharge des nappes, se fait assez vite à travers certains chemins préférentiels. Les eaux sodiques sont localisées pour la majorité en aval du bassin versant où l’infiltration des eaux fortement évaporées et les échanges des cations prédominent. Les terrains présentent des altitudes s’échelonnant de 70 m à 210 m avec des pics ponctuels par endroits qui s’élèvent jusqu’à 450 m avec et des pentes qui oscillent de 2 à 4 %. L’analyse des épaisseurs d’altérites met en évidence un contrôle par la lithologie et une épaisseur est moins forte dans les vallées des principaux cours d’eau. La modélisation piézométrique montre que le bassin versant hydrogéologique reproduit le bassin versant hydrologique à une dizaine de mètres de profondeur avec quelques variations. / Remote sensing, geomorphology, and hydrogeochemistry methods were used to characterize the ground water flow in this part of the Sassandra River watershed that lies in the Southwest of Ivory Coast. The distribution of the spacing between the lineaments obeys a process of Poisson which allowed estimating that 17 % of lineaments of size inferior to 2.1 km were not mapped. This network of lineaments has been analysed in order to obtain a statistical characterisation of the geometry of the aquifer blocs in the bedrock. This approach allowed studying the hydrodynamism to the local scale. The groundwater is mainly of type Ca-HCO3 or Na-HCO3. The conditions of the groundwater storage and circulation in the bedrock are studied here by using major ions. The calcic water, little or moderately mineralized is ensued from some zones of the watershed where the recharge is quite fast through some preferential paths. The sodic water is largely located at the downstream of the watershed, where the water infiltration strongly evaporated, and the cations exchange are the prevailing phenomena. The altitudes of the grounds spreading out from 70 to 210 m, with some punctual peaks of 450 m in places, and some slopes ranging from 2 to 4%. The regolith thickness pointed out a control by the lithology, and a layer less thick in the main stream’s channel valleys. From borehole data and the water level in the hydrographical network, we show that the hydrogeological watershed is a subdued version of the hydrological watershed at a depth of 10 m with some variations.

Instability in stope panels in shallow mines manifests itself as rockfalls from the hangingwall. Rockfalls from unstable stope panels vary in size from rockfalls between support units, to rockfalls spanning between pillars or solid abutments, to rockfalls bridging several panels and pillars. A suitable and reliable design methodology for stable stope panels at shallow depths is therefore required. This methodology must consider all manifestations of instability in stope panels and take account of the factors governing the stability. Very few mines design stope panels according to a systematic design procedure or methodology. Rock mass characterisation, estimation of rock mass properties, identification of potential failure modes, appropriate stability analyses and other elements of the rock engineering design process are often neglected. Instead, panel lengths are often dictated by the equipment in use and by previous experience under similar conditions. Consequently, unplanned stope panel collapses occur on most near-surface and shallow mines. Although these incidents often occur during blasting, they pose a major threat to the safety of underground workers and the economic extraction of orebodies. Hence, a rock engineering design methodology for the design of stable stope panels between pillars is of vital importance for optimum safety and production in shallow mining operations. Using the proposed design methodology, rock mechanics practitioners and mine planners should be able to identify and quantify the critical factors influencing the stability of stope panels. The critical factors should then be used as input to the design of stable stope panels that will provide the necessary safe environment for underground personnel working in stopes. It is concluded that the design of stable stope panels should be a process of defining the means of creating stable stope panels for the safety of underground workers and optimum extraction of the orebody. Therefore, a method is required whereby all rock properties, their variability, and an understanding of all rock mechanisms affecting the stability of stope spans are used as a fundamental base. A procedure for identifying the mechanisms and rock properties relevant to the specific problem is then required. In this way, existing knowledge should be used in an optimal way to design site specific stable stope spans. Hence, it is proposed that the design methodology for stable stope panels is a process consisting of the following steps: 1. Define objective. 2. Rock mass characterisation. 3. Estimation of in situ rock mass properties. 4. Consider an “ideal” stope panel. 5. Identification of potential failure modes. 6. Stability analyses. 7. Identify all significant hazards and assess the significant risks. 8. Geometric optimisation. 9. Determination of support requirements. 10. Design of support. 11. Evaluation. 12. Recommendation and implementation. 13. Monitoring of excavation and support behaviour to validate design and permit modifications. / Dissertation (MEng (Mining))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Mining Engineering / unrestricted