The purpose of the study was to assess the impact of housing services on the bio-psycho-social functioning of homeless persons with HIV/AIDS. Ideally, taking a homeless person with HIV/AIDS and returning them to a healthy state would be a goal of any social service intervention.

The purpose of this project is to review literature on creatine monohydrate (simply known as creatine/Cr) supplementation and its effects on exercise, human performance, and health. Included in this project is basic information relating to the biochemical and physiological effects of Cr, including possible side effects.

Recent and past events in the South Durban Basin (SDB) have highlighted the possible connection between perceived air pollution concerns and deteriorating health. The aim of this study is to explore how the SDB community perceives air pollution and if this can be related to some of the health problems that are experienced in these communities. The ultimate aim is to determine whether the respondents connect air pollution to specific illnesses and also how they perceive the actions used to combat air pollution and its negative health impacts. This information is gathered through a questionnaire conducted in various study areas both within and outside the SDB, then compared with demographic variables. This is done to determine if perception is related to direct industrial activity or if there are other factors influencing results. Variables such as race and level of education had little impact on the results. The results showed that areas within the SDB experience a high neighborhood satisfaction despite the current general belief of air pollution being connected to ill health. The control areas outside of the SDB support theories of gender and race and its relationship to air pollution, currently presented by researchers in the perception field. Strong associations’ do exist between general environmental satisfaction and gender. Perception of current legal enforcement is exerting a strong effect on air pollution perception formation. Vitally important is the connection of daily concrete experiences of air pollution with the lack of transparency and communication between industry and communities. It is resulting in the current perception of illness being connected to tangible air pollution. The aim is to further future studies on establishing links between health and air quality. Gaining insight from the study of public risk perceptions based on local knowledge and experience in particular places, will help shape the role of environmental policy and management response systems. / Geography / M.A. (Geography)

Reducing population exposure to inorganic arsenic (iAs), a known carcinogen and highly toxic metalloid of great public health concern, remains an ongoing challenge worldwide and in the United States (US). In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for total arsenic in public drinking water supplies through the Safe Drinking Water Act. In 2001, the US EPA implemented the Final Arsenic Rule, which lowered the MCL for arsenic in public drinking water supplies from 50 to 10 µg/L. Reductions in iAs exposure and subsequent related disease associated with this important regulatory change have not been quantified. Currently, no national-level exposure estimates of iAs drinking water exposure are available for US residents reliant on public drinking water. There is a critical need to identify susceptible subgroups of the US population who remain at risk for elevated iAs drinking water exposure. This dissertation aimed to quantify the reduction in drinking water iAs exposure resulting from the US EPA MCL regulatory change, to estimate drinking water iAs exposure for US residents reliant on public drinking water, to identify susceptible subgroups across the US whose water iAs remains high, and to determine if iAs exposure was associated with heart disease mortality in the general US population. Chapter 1 provides background information necessary to contextualize the work contained in this dissertation. In Chapter 2, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of dietary sources of iAs exposure in the Strong Heart Family Study, a cohort of American Indian adults followed primarily for cardiovascular disease, using a self-reported food frequency questionnaire and urinary iAs measurements. Self-reported intake of rice, organ meat, processed meat, and non-alcoholic drinks was associated with increased urinary iAs concentrations. Diet alone explained only 3% of total variability in urinary iAs concentrations, indicating that the majority of iAs exposure for SHFS participants occurs from drinking water. Second, (in Chapter 3), we explored trends in water iAs exposure in the general US population associated with the EPA’s MCL change using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 2003-2014, separately for participants reliant on public drinking water vs. private well water (which is not subject to US EPA regulation). We estimated that implementation of the new US EPA MCL was associated with a 17% reduction in drinking water iAs exposure for all participants reliant on public drinking water; the corresponding reduction was 32% for Mexican-American participants. No reduction was observed for participants reliant on private wells. Third (in Chapter 4), we estimated drinking water iAs exposure at the community water system and county-level across the entire US from 2006-2011 using the US EPA’s Six Year Review of Contaminant Occurrence database. We estimated that nationwide public drinking water iAs concentrations decreased by 8.5% and 21.6% at the 80th and 99th percentiles of the water iAs distribution in accordance with the MCL implementation, with significant differences across US subgroups. Greater decreases in iAs concentrations were reported for systems reliant on groundwater, systems serving smaller populations, and systems in the Northeast, Central Midwest, and Southwestern regions of the US. Susceptible subgroups whose public drinking water iAs exposure remains high include populations served by small community water systems reliant on groundwater, communities in the Southwestern US, Semi-Urban, Hispanic communities, and Rural, American Indian communities. Fourth (in Chapter 5), we assessed six-year average arsenic concentrations in community water systems exclusively serving correctional facilities in the US (e.g. prisons, jails, detention centers) compared to other community water systems. Average arsenic concentrations were twice as high in correctional facility community water systems located in the Southwest (6.41 µg/L, 95% CI 3.48, 9.34) compared to all other community water systems in the Southwest (3.11 µg/L, 95% CI 2.97, 3.24). Over a quarter of correctional facility systems in the Southwest reported a six-year average arsenic concentration exceeding the 10 µg/L MCL. Persons incarcerated in the Southwestern US were at disproportionate risk of drinking water arsenic exposure and related disease from 2006-2011. Fifth (in Chapter 6), we multiply imputed urinary arsenic concentrations below the limit of detection (LOD) in NHANES 2003-2016 using a Bayesian Tobit regression model. Epidemiological analyses of urinary arsenic data in NHANES are limited by the relatively high analytical LODs and large proportion of participants with undetectable values. Distributions of urinary arsenic originally reported in NHANES, which replace values below the LOD with the LOD divided by the square root of two, likely overestimate iAs exposure at the lowest exposure levels and may introduce significant bias. Bayesian-multiply imputed datasets may improve the assessment of iAs exposure in cohorts with high analytical LODs for arsenic species. Finally (in Chapter 7), we evaluated the association between urinary iAs concentrations (internal dose) and heart disease mortality as recorded in the National Death Index in NHANES 2003-2014 participants. We found a positive but non-significant prospective association between increasing iAs exposure and heart disease mortality for all participants (hazard ratio 1.15, 95% CI 0.77, 1.70), and a significant positive association for non-Hispanic white participants using flexible spline models. Geometric mean ratios of iAs exposure were higher among cases compared to non-cases, especially for Mexican-American participants (1.30, 95% CI 0.90, 1.88). These findings further support the potential association between low- to moderate- iAs exposure and cardiovascular disease in the US population, and indicate that further high-quality prospective studies of Hispanic and Latino Americans are needed to investigate the potential increased susceptibility of Mexican-Americans to iAs-related cardiovascular disease. Taken together, these studies suggest that while the implementation of the US EPA’s 10 µg/L MCL has reduced drinking water arsenic exposure for many Americans reliant on public drinking water systems, these reductions were not uniform across all US populations. Populations who remain at risk of elevated drinking water arsenic exposure include those reliant on domestic wells, those located in the Southwest, persons incarcerated in the Southwest, tribal communities, and Hispanic communities. Further high-quality epidemiologic research is needed to evaluate the association between low- to moderate iAs exposure and cardiovascular disease in these populations. Stronger federal regulations, targeted compliance enforcement and technical assistance, and other public health interventions are needed to reduce drinking water arsenic exposure in these communities.

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Library and Information Science at the University of Zululand, 2005. / The impact of HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/ acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is devastating worldwide especially among tertiary institutions whose constituencies are within the age bracket between 15-45 years. Unfortunately there is still no cure for the disease, and one way of controlling the rampant nature of the pandemic is through educational and enlightening interventions backed by appropriate information. The aim of the study was to assess the framework, nature and scope of the institutional response as well as the appropriateness of HIV/AIDS information dissemination interventions developed and employed by institutions of higher learning in South Africa for the prevention of the spread of the pandemic. The study was informed by theoretical framework grounded on the Diffusion of Innovations theory. Both qualitative and quantitative research design and methodologies were employed largely through survey, observation and document analysis. The study targeted HIV/AIDS service providers, health centers and institutional libraries within all public universities and technikons in South Africa. The respondents within institutions were identified largely through non-probability sampling techniques such as snowball and purposive sampling. The study mapped out the HIV/AIDS response of the higher education sector in relation to programmes offered and strategies and methods that are used to manage the pandemic and disseminate information. The findings reveal that the response of the higher education sector to HIV/AIDS is not uniform, but there is a positive move towards strong management of HIV/AIDS and information diffusion. Secondly, it is observed that the disease has some impact on institutional mandates such as teaching, learning, research and community service. Unexpectedly, the study confirmed widely held views that are also reported in related studies, that the response of academic institutions to the disease is still characterized by silence, denial, discrimination and stigma as most institutions do not address the disease openly. Thirdly, it was established that in those institutions where there is an AIDS Centre the response seemed to be more systematic and well guided as compared to those that relied on the services of the health centre. Fourthly, there was no distinction made in terms of the nature and strength of the institutional response between service providers that had higher academic qualifications and those that did not have. Most highly qualified respondents though had other academic responsibilities, dealt with HIV/AIDS as additional job. Fifthly, it was easy to distinguish between historically advantaged and disadvantaged institutions, as the tatter had interventions that were underdeveloped and limited in scope and depth. Similarly, universities as compared to technikons demonstrated more intense interventions and better resource provision. Sixth, in most institutions management supports the institutional HIV/AIDS management and response. This involvement was evident through observation on the nature of the response, capacity buildings and resources on the ground. However, it was sadly observed that this executive commitment to HIV/AIDS seemed to be overridden by other priorities such as the reconfiguration and reconstruction of the sector. Further, noted that all institutions have HIV/AIDS policies, but some of them have not implemented these policies. Seven, though the Higher Education HIV/AIDS Programme is coordinating the HIV/AIDS response within the whole sector, it does not seem to have all the answers for the systemic problems that are cropping up. Eight, HiV/AlDS information is disseminated by the institutional libraries, HIV/AIDS service providers and health centers. Mostly, information is disseminated in print form while other modem media seemed to be underutilized and repackaging is not extensively done due, partly, to shortage of resources and capacities. The study found strong link between the theoretical models earlier mentioned and results of the study. Specifically, these theories confirmed the importance of the content of HIV/AIDS messages and the value of horizontal and vertical communication strategies. The study recommends that the institutional response needs to be revamped and redesigned to improve the traditional information dissemination strategies that are used by most academic institutions. Information dissemination strategies should be designed in line with current trends in socio-cultural and political lifestyles of young people. However, though there are still flaws and inefficiencies, the sector is responding positively to the epidemic and efforts are being made to synchronize and coordinate the systemic response. The study recommends further research on feasibility, applicability and effectiveness of the centralized coordination of the higher education HIV/AIDS response. It also recommends that the higher education sector should be more involved in the initiative of the Higher Education HIV/AIDS Programme to make valuable contributions based on experiential encounters. Similarly, strategies should be rapidly implemented to redress past imbalances in relation to strengthening capacities and resources of previously disadvantaged institutions to enable them to deal effectively with the disease. Other issues have been unearthed and a model for effective HIV/AIDS management and information diffusion in the sector suggested.

Health impact assessment (HIA) has emerged in the U.S. as one promising process to increase social and environmental justice through addressing health equity issues within planning. HIA practice is guided by values such as democracy and equity and grounded in broad social determinants of health. The most readily applied definition of democracy is problematic because it implies an element of direct, participatory engagement with the public. This is at odds with HIA practice that largely relies on stakeholder engagement strategies. This dissertation critically examines the engagement strategies of three transportation planning HIA cases to more fully understand how the HIA process may or may not promote democratic values and protect community health interests. It employs a multi-case study design that uses qualitative content analysis to trace community health interests through the HIA process, HIA document, and target plan. It finds that while the field is overstating the participatory nature of HIA, commitments to health equity and broad determinants of health protect community health interests with and without robust engagement of community stakeholders.

In 2008, there were more than 5,200 workplace fatalities in the United States (BLS, 2010b). During the same time period, U.S. employees missed almost 1.1 million days from work (BLS, 2010c). Accidents are unexpected outcomes that result not only from individuals' behaviors, but from contextual factors (Krause, 1997; Reason, 1990). Therefore, unsafe behaviors have to be interpreted according to a combination of what is occurring in the environment and what the individual is doing in that environment. The present study sought to create a more comprehensive model of safety by means of macroergonomics. Macroergonomics utilizes sociotechnical systems theory to posit that a work system is composed of a personnel subsystem (i.e., ways individuals perform tasks), a technological subsystem (i.e., tasks to be performed), and external factors (Hendrick, 2002a). Perceived control over work hours, an aspect of the technological subsystem, was examined as an antecedent of work-family conflict. Supervisor instrumental support, an aspect of the personnel subsystem, was examined as a moderator of the relationships between perceived control over work hours and work-family conflict. Supervisors have an imperative role in employees' perception of control over their work hours (Kelly & Moen, 2007). Supervisor instrumental support was also hypothesized to moderate the relationships between work-family conflict and safety performance. Supervisors who support their employees in their work-family matters exceed mandatory requirements set forth to protect workers' safety and health (Mearns, Hope, Ford, & Tetrick, 2010). A majority of the 360 participants in the present study were grocery store employees who worked in the front end of the store as cashiers. Job tenure in this particular grocery store chain was an average of 7 years (SD = 5.96) and the average number of hours worked per week was 31 (SD = 8.55). The employees were an average age of 38 years old (SD = 15.25). Two hundred and sixty-two (73%) of the participants were female, 330 (92%) were White, 196 (55%) employees were married or living as married, 146 (41%) employees identified themselves as parents with children living at home, and 58 (16%) employees provided elder care. The data were analyzed using a moderated mediation model. An employee's perceived control over his/her work hours was negatively associated with work-to-family and family-to-work conflict. Work-to-family conflict was not significantly associated with either safety compliance or participation. In contrast, family-to-work conflict was significantly associated with both safety compliance and participation. These findings replicate Cullen and Hammer's (2007) findings that family-to-work conflict, but not work-to-family conflict, is negatively associated with safety compliance and participation. The replication of these significant findings gives support to macroergonomics' assertion that external forces (i.e., family) can affect the safety of employees. All of the meditating and moderating relationships proposed in this dissertation were not significant. I conducted post hoc analyses to determine other possible significant paths in the model examined. The FSSB dimension of supervisor instrumental support was found to positively affect both safety compliance and participation. Supervisor instrumental support was also found to directly affect work-to-family conflict. Overall FSSB and its subdimensions demonstrated similar patterns in the hypothesized relationships and in additional relationships examined. Numerous implications can be recognized from this dissertation. First, interdisciplinary approaches to safety research are emerging and important in the pursuit of safer work environments. Macroergonomics and I/O psychology have commonalities that lend themselves to a good partnership where researchers can learn from each other and collaborate to advance the study of safety. Second, organizations need to focus on the stressors their employees experience as part of their safety programs, and numerous studies, including this dissertation, have found that family-to-work conflict impacts safety compliance and participation. Future safety research may incorporate macroergonomics, which emphasizes that focusing on one adverse aspect of the system may not be enough to create valuable change if there are other adverse factors still creating demands elsewhere in the system. This will allow for a more comprehensive model that ensures certain aspects of the system are not neglected, which can reduce effectiveness of constructs used to create positive changes.

Congested traffic corridors in dense urban areas are key contributors to the degradation of urban air quality. While waiting at bus stops, transit patrons may be exposed to greater amounts of vehicle-based pollution, including particulate matter, due to their proximity to the roadway. Current guidelines for the location and design of bus stops do not take into account air quality or exposure considerations. This thesis provides a unique contribution to roadside air quality studies and presents an innovative method for the consideration of bus shelter placement. Exposure to roadside pollutants is estimated for transit riders waiting at three-sided bus stop shelters that either: 1) face roadway traffic, or 2) face away from roadway traffic. Shelters were instrumented with particulate matter monitoring equipment, sonic anemometers for wind speed and direction, and vehicle counters capable of categorizing vehicles by length. Temperature and relative humidity were gathered from a nearby monitoring station. Data were collected for two different days at three shelters during both the morning and afternoon peak periods for a total of eleven data periods. Bus shelter orientation is found to significantly affect concentration of four sizes of particulate matter: ultrafine particles, PM1, PM2.5, and PM10. Shelters with an opening oriented towards the roadway were observed to have significantly higher concentrations inside the shelter than outside the shelter. In contrast, shelters oriented away from the roadway were observed to have significantly lower concentrations inside the shelter than outside the shelter. The differences in average particulate matter concentrations are statistically significant across all four sizes of particulate matter studied. Additional correlation and linear regression investigation reveals interactions between particulate concentrations and built environment characteristics, vehicle flow, and weather conditions. Temperature and relative humidity played a large role in the diurnal variation of average concentration levels. In all instances, particulate concentrations were greater during the morning period, often substantially so. Particulate concentrations are shown to vary based on both wind speed and direction. Vehicle flow is correlated with particulate levels, though significance is not consistent. Lagged vehicle flow is demonstrated to be more consistently significant. Regression analysis suggests weather factors such as wind, temperature, and relative humidity explain roughly 70% of particulate variation, while vehicle flow explains less than 6%.

As a social species, human beings are driven by an innate desire to belong and are thus motivated to develop and maintain meaningful social relationships. As such, perceiving a lack of belongingness strongly impacts psychological and physiological health and well-being. A common form of perceived relationship deficits is loneliness, a negative-affective experience detrimental to health and well-being over time. Through a series of three manuscripts, this dissertation applies the full-cycle model of social psychological research to explore various affective, behavioral, and cognitive consequences of loneliness. Whereas existing models of loneliness focus on long-lasting or chronic forms of loneliness, these studies investigate chronic and transient loneliness, as well as processes through which transient loneliness may develop into more chronic levels. The first paper demonstrates that solitary consumption is a unique behavioral response to transient loneliness, which may exacerbate the experience of loneliness and negatively impact health over time. The second paper provides support for a positivity-deficit perspective, demonstrating that chronic loneliness is related to less disclosure of recent positive experiences, a deficit which may be consequential for the development of close relationships. The third paper demonstrates the role of transient loneliness in inhibiting individuals and their interaction partners from reaping the social rewards of positive-event disclosure, particularly among those who typically feel socially connected. Taken together, these studies expand the current understanding transient loneliness, revealing various social-cognitive and behavioral consequences which could impede the social-reaffiliation process, and thus contribute to the maintenance of loneliness over time.

This thesis is a study of the socio-economic changes in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela since the new government came into office in 1999. The research hypothesis for this thesis is that the changes and parallel socioeconomic structures being implemented in Venezuela since 1999 have decreased structural violence, and have provided more inclusion for previously excluded people. As the methodology used is qualitative, utilizing textual analysis to conduct a case study, academic journals from the fields of conflict resolution, sociology, political science, public health, cultural studies and economics were relied upon for the most part. This study of structural violence and exclusion has necessitated the contextualization of the situation, and as such, neoliberalism as a major influence has been discussed to aid in understanding and drawing conclusions. The results indicate that the changes and parallel socioeconomic structures being implemented in Venezuela since 1999 have decreased structural violence, and have provided more inclusion for previously excluded people.