Food is one of the main routes by which xenobiotic (synthetic) chemicals enter the body of man and wildlife. The routes could be from wrappers in which the foods are presented with possible transfer of the compounds to consumers, hence need for regular screening. The research work is aimed at investigating possible prevalence of phthalate esters in selected foods (cheese, polony and vienna) and their plastic wrappers from commercial stores in Tshwane metropolis. Food samples were purchased from selected stores, taken to the laboratory and stored at 4oC until analysed. Analysis was done by soxhlet extraction while determination and quantification of phthalates was carried out using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID). Quality assurance of the process was by standard addition of the phthalate ester standards. Results obtained revealed good chromatographic separation of the analysed esters which ranged from 5.55 min for Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) to 8.96 min for Benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP). Instrumental detection limit of the esters varied from 0.03 - 0.05 μg/kg. The percentage recovery of the phthalate esters ranged from 75 – 90% from spiked cheese samples; 33 – 66% from spiked polony samples and 69 – 99% from spiked vienna samples. These recoveries are quite acceptable and applicable to the analysis and quantification of the compounds in the samples with the exception of Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) (33%); DMP (34%) and BBP (46 %) in polony samples. Results from chromatographic quantification revealed the absence of or non-detection of most of the analysed phthalate esters in the selected food samples. However, level of 0.031 μg/kg of BBP - 0.816 μg/kg of DMP were obtained in some of the analysed samples. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The study was conducted to examine the communication between the customer and the cashier at the point of purchase in the process of determining the impact of the labeling laws. This study used an inductive qualitative design for data collection and data analysis. Data from this study suggest that calorie counts on menu labels are discussed frequently between the customer and the cashier at the point of sale at fast-casual restaurants. The data found gives us a framework and rationale as to why previous research on the effectiveness of the calorie labeling law in the Affordable Care Act have yet to make a significant impact in reducing consumer’s total daily caloric intake when eating food away from the home and found three specific reasons as to why the calorie labeling law may not be working the way the government intended it to. First, consumers at fast-casual restaurants rely on the cashiers as calorie guides because they are not aware or knowledgeable about the recommended daily caloric intake and often underestimate the total calories in their meals. Secondly, the study’s findings indicate that when restaurants offer lower calorie choices and downsizing options like a “small pita” at Pita Pit instead of a “regular pita”, many consumers buy the downsized item or smaller portion but food chains are not downsizing their signature items. Third, the study examined if the cashiers are trained in any way to discuss new regulations and calorie count/nutritional value and not one cashier was trained specifically about the calorie labeling law and why certain foods on the menu have more calories than others even though they are influencing decision making. Conversations at the point of sale have been routinely ignored in research about the calorie labeling law and this research helps to understand the choices consumers are making with the newly implemented calorie labeling regulation. The results from this study helps us further advance our understanding as to why consumers make the food choices they do while eating at restaurants.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Environmental Health)) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2013 / Introduction: Drinking water of poor quality can cause a variety of diseases and may even result in death. The impact of poor drinking water is a course for concern even in South Africa. Therefore, the physical, chemical and microbiological drinking water quality was investigated in the peri-urban area of Bainsvlei and the Woodlands Hills Estate in Bloemfontein, Free State. Materials and Methods: The water quality was assessed in 20 identified sampling sites for three series with ten weeks apart. These sites use treated municipal and untreated borehole water for drinking. The determinants analysed for were pH, electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, temperature, Ca, Mg, Na, F, Cl, N, SO₄,N, Free chlorine, Al, As, CN, Fe, Mn, Pb, Hg, total coliforms and E. coli. The water samples were collected and analysed on site and in the laboratory. Both the physical and chemical determinants were measured using standard methods whereas the microbiological determinants were measured using the Defined Substrate Technology (DST) method. The measurements were first compared to the SANS 241 (2011) for compliance. The ANOVA tests were used to investigate if any seasonal variations existed in the water quality as well as to compare the levels of the determinants between borehole and municipal water. In the assessment of the overall drinking water quality of different water sampling sites the water quality index (WQI) was used. Results and Discussions: Significant effects were believed to exist if the p-values of the ANOVA and Scheffe tests were at a significance level of 5% (p < 0.05). The study results revealed that of the four physical determinants that were measured turbidity exceeded the standard in many sampling sites in the three series. Of all the chemical determinants, nitrates exceeded the standard. In the same way coliforms exceeded the standard in a number of sampling sites while E. coli was found in a few sampling sites in the first series. ANOVA tests revealed that seasonal variations existed between pH, EC, temperature, cyanide and iron at a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05) while the Post-hoc Scheffe test further revealed the series in which the effect existed. Similarly, the ANOVA tests revealed that the levels of the determinants between municipal versus borehole varied in pH, EC, Ca, Mg, Na, F, Cl, N, and SO₄ at a significant level of 5% (p < 0.05). The WQI showed that in all the series when combining the good and excellent category season 2 had the highest percentage of 80%, followed by season 3 with 79% and season 1 with 70%. Only borehole sampling sites were found in the poor, very poor and unsuitable categories. Similarly all the highest WQI values were found in borehole sampling sites. Conclusion: This study revealed that the water quality is of good quality in the Bainsvlei and Woodlands Hills Estate of the Mangaung metropolitan municipality in Bloemfontein, in the Free State, South Africa. The presence of E. coli, though found in a few sampling sites and the high levels of turbidity, nitrates and coliforms are of concern to public health.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Biomedical Technology)) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, [2014] / Pica is the habitual eating of non-food substances by humans and animals. It has different subgroups and these are defined by the ingested substance. Moreover, geophagia is a type of pica that refers to the consistent eating of mostly earth and earth-like substances such as clay and soil. It is observed in both sexes, all age groups and in different ethnic groups around the world. There are many reasons people give for the practice of geophagia, such as culture, hunger and health being the most prominent. Geophagic materials differ in texture, colour and taste. Soil colour classification according to the Munsell soil classification, which uses hues, values and chroma, sometimes differ with the soil colour being noticeable with the naked eye. However, geophagic clays from Qwa-Qwa are white and contain kaoline. Geophagic materials are believed to augment mineral deficiency, especially magnesium, calcium and iron. Geophagia is practised mainly by females, especially during their child bearing years. Females are more prone to iron deficiency anaemia due to their monthly menstruation cycle. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anaemia and is classified as hypochromic microcytic anaemia (HMA). This study focused on the health aspect of geophagia. The research question seeks to explore whether there is an association between geophagia and the haematological parameters of iron deficiency anaemia. Geophagia seems to be linked with the occurrence of anaemia, but not iron deficiency anaemia, although it is implied. It is not known if the practice of geophagia causes iron deficiency anaemia or if it is because of iron deficiency anaemia that people practise geophagia. A pilot study was done in 2007, and the results of that study prompted that this study be performed on a bigger scale. The lack of information regarding the quantity, frequency and type of geophagic material consumed the impact of geophagia on haematological parameters and the iron status of the geophagists made it important that the primary existence of the iii relationship be investigated. In addition, research to establish whether there is a relationship between geophagia and haematological parameters of iron deficiency anaemia, has not been undertaken in South Africa, especially on non-pregnant women. Geophagia seems to always be accompanied by the subject of iron deficiency anaemia and especially its prevalence in females. The bigger geophagia project was therefore an ideal opportunity to do a specific survey on geophagic women. This was a cross-sectional study, consisting of 36 control women and 47 geophagic women, aged between 18-45 years. The participants completed a questionnaire to determine the geophagic practices, which included the colour of the clay, how frequent the clay was consumed, how much was consumed and for how long it has been consumed. Nutritional status was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire. Blood was drawn to assess the haematological and iron status of the participants. The participants of the study were within the required age range, with no significant difference between the groups (p-value=0.7914). The most consumed colour of clay was white and white clay contains kaoline, which has the ability to absorb iron in the duodenum. The majority of the participants consumed 40 grams of clay on a daily basis, with most of the participants having done so for 5 years. Diet was ruled out as the cause of iron deficiency. The haematological parameters indicated that the geophagic group (43%) were inclined to have hypochromic microcytic anaemia, while a small percentage of control groups (8%) had HMA; this was revealed by the red cell parameters and red cell indices. In addition, the odds ratio for the haematological results revealed that the probability of a geophagic person developing anaemia was two times greater than that of a non-geophagic person. Platelet results partially ruled out bleeding as a cause of anaemia. The median red cell distribution width indicated that the iv geophagic group was inclined to have anisocytosis. The geophagic group was found to have iron deficiency (75%), whilst the control group had a small percentage with iron deficiency (22%), which was validated by the serum ferritin, serum iron and saturated transferrin (chemical analysis). The odds ratio revealed that the probability of a geophagic person being iron deficient is 3 times greater than that of a non-geophagic person. The strongest association is seen with iron study findings, because being iron deficient showed the highest odd ratio than the association with red cell morphology and even haemoglobin. Thus, participants were more iron deficient than suffering from iron deficiency anaemia. Inflammatory and parasitic indicators proved that inflammation and infection was uncommon in both groups, and therefore did not compromise the credibility of the iron study results. Inflammatory indicators (white blood cells, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein) ruled out inflammation, whilst eosinophil count showed no indication of parasitic infection for both geophagic and control groups. To conclude, the study found that an association exists between geophagia and haematological parameters of iron deficiency anaemia amongst geophagic women in Qwa-Qwa, in that geophagic material contributes to iron deficiency anaemia.

Thesis (M. Tech.) -- Central University of Technology, Free State, 2008

The study explored, described and explained the current models of voluntary counselling and testing services delivery and analysed the extent to which a given VCT model had influenced uptake of VCT services in the fishing communities along the shores of Lake Victoria, in Wakiso District, with an aim of designing optimal VCT service delivery strategies. The study was therefore exploratory, descriptive and explanatory, and collected both qualitative and quantitative data in a three-phased approach. Phase I involved the Kasenyi fishing community respondents, while phases II and III involved VCT managers and VCT counsellors at the Entebbe and Kisubi Hospitals. The findings indicated that VCT services are generally available onsite at health facilities, and in the field through mobile VCT outreach or home-based VCT services provided at clients’ homes. Both client-initiated and health provider-initiated VCT services are available and services are integrated with other health services. Despite the availability of VCT, only about half of the respondents in phase I had accessed VCT services although almost all indicated a willingness to undergo HIV testing in the near future. The main challenges to service delivery and utilisation included limited funding and staffing as well as limited awareness in target communities. The strategies drawn are based on the need to increase availability, accessibility, acceptability and utilisation of VCT services. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Various studies on compliance with anti-hypertensive medications and appropriate lifestyle modifications have been conducted worldwide but studies specific to the Island of Praslin are lacking. The purpose of this quantitative, descriptive-correlational study was to describe factors that affected compliance with hypertension medications and lifestyle modification strategies in a sample of 102 hypertensive persons. The comprehensive version of the Health Belief Model served as the conceptual framework directing the study. The researcher investigated whether there were any significant relationships between compliance and the Health Belief Model variables. Data was collected by means of structured interviews and document analysis, involving an interview schedule and a checklist. All respondents were diagnosed hypertension patients registered at either of the two public health centres on the Island of Praslin. Individual perception of the benefits and risks of hypertension treatment as well as cues to action were found to be significant determinants of compliance behaviour. The study highlighted the need for improved health education and follow-up measures to strengthen patients’ perceptions about the benefits of treatment and compliance. / Public Health / M.A. (Public Health)

The purpose of the study was to determine the factors that predict women’s risky sexual behaviour and HIV and AIDS knowledge. A quasi-experimental, pre-test-post-test research design, with a non-equivalent comparison group was conducted to determine if there was an association between young women’s sexual behaviour and HIV/AIDS knowledge on aspects of HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention and behaviour change. The study used both quantitative and qualitative approach. Data collection was done using semi-structured interview schedule and focus group discussion guide. The respondents who participated in the study were women between the ages of 15-25 years. Two groups of respondents participated in the study. Women in the quasi-experimental site (N=200) who received the intervention and women in the control site (N=200) who did not receive any intervention. Quantitative data were analysed with the help of a statistician and the Epi Info statistical package was used. Qualitative data obtained from the focus group discussion were analysed using Tesch’s method of analysis. The major inferences drawn from this study are that young women lack knowledge relating to HIV/AIDS and that some young women were engaged in risky sexual behaviours such as having multiple sexual partners and having unprotected sex. The study indicates that peer education strategy has the potential to make an impact on these young women. It has also shown that peer education can play an important role in increasing knowledge and reducing risky sexual behaviour. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Inequalities in levels of health between regions within a country are frequently regarded as a problem. Zimbabwe is characterised by poor and unequal conditions of health (both the state of people’s health and health services). The health system of the country shows severe spatial inequalities that are manifested at provincial, district and even local levels. This research therefore examines and analyses the spatial inequalities and temporal variation of health conditions in Zimbabwe. Composite indices were used to determine the people’s state of health in Zimbabwe. Administrative districts were ranked according to the level of people’s state of health. Cluster analysis was also performed to demarcate administrative districts according the level of health service provision. Districts with minimum difference were demarcated in a single cluster. Clusters were delineated using data on patterns of diseases and health and such clusters were used to demarcate the country’s spatial health system according to the Adapted Epidemiological Transition Model. This was used to evaluate the applicability of the model to Zimbabwe. It emerged from the research that generally the country’s health conditions are poor and the health system is characterised by severe spatial inequalities. Some districts are experiencing poor health service provision and serious health challenges and are still in the age of pestilence and famine but others have good health service provision as well as highly developed health conditions and are in the age degenerative diseases of the epidemiological transition model. It further emerged that the country’s health has been evolving with signs of improvement since the 1990s. Recommendations were made regarding possible adjustment to previous strategies and policies used in Zimbabwe, for the development of the health system of the country. New strategies were also recommended for the improvement of the health system of the country. Some proposals are made for further research on the spatial development of health in the country. / Geography / D. Litt et. Phil. (Geography)

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Technology in Business Administration, Entrepreneurial Studies & Management Department, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2015.