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Humans’ social relationships determine to a large degree their trajectories in life. Despite strong evidence for the impact of interpersonal relations on wellbeing, the causal links between the two are not yet fully understood. This dissertation offers a new perspective on the mechanisms through which social ties influence negative (excessive drinking) and positive (participation in recreational activities) health behaviors. In three studies employing a unique combination of social network, fMRI, and experience-sampling methods, we propose that health decisions are the result of complex computations involving prior social experiences, perceived social norms, social comparison processes, and current feelings of connections. Each chapter of this dissertation discusses one of these three studies. Chapter 1 provides evidence that past social experiences shape valuations of new information by showing that pairs of students that drink often together tend to have more similar neural responses to novel alcohol cues in regions associated with affective self-generated thought. In addition, this Chapter suggests that researchers must consider the intricate interplay between individuals’ personal goals and their communities’ norms to understand the influence of social environments on neural representations. The degree to which students aligned their neural response patterns to alcohol with those of their peers depended on interactions between their individual motives for drinking and their group’s approval of this behavior. Chapter 2 presents novel findings that people spontaneously represent social information from multiple networks (e.g., popularity and leadership) at a neural level in social cognition (right TPJ, dmPFC) and valuation (vmPFC) regions. Importantly, individuals who display higher neural sensitivity to status differences are also more likely to align their drinking behavior with their group norms in daily life. Together, our results provide insight into the neural mechanisms through which social comparison processes shape conformity and suggest social cognition and valuation regions as important hubs orchestrating this process. While Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 focus on the influence of social ties on drinking, Chapter 3 discusses the protective role of close relations during difficult times. We provide evidence that close college friendships, even if afar, helped young adults cope with the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic. Follow-up between- and within-individual analyses reveal that this buffering effect could be explained by differences in the quality of online interactions (e.g., via phone, text messaging), instances of personal disclosure, and participation in enjoyable activities. All in all, this dissertation advances our understanding of why measures of social wellbeing are the best predictor of health trajectories in life, by highlighting the important role social ties play in shaping valuation of new information, guiding behavior to meet social goals, and protecting against stress by allowing people to engage in recreational activities.

This thesis comprises three chapters on topics in development economics. The first chapter studies access to maternal healthcare in markets with vertically differentiated public and private providers. The second chapter studies the efficacy of induction stoves in reducing indoor air pollution in rural households when faced with erratic power supply. Finally, the third chapter studies the role of financial incentives in correcting disparities in sex ratios. All three chapters study the context of India but are representative of important development issues in low-income countries. The first chapter titled "Equilibrium Effects of Subsidizing Public Services" studies one of India's largest welfare schemes Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) that incentivized pregnant women in India to access institutional maternal care at public hospitals. We argue that governments can make complementary investments to improve welfare gains from large scale policies. JSY did not improve health outcomes despite a substantial increase in the take-up of institutional care. We document three equilibrium responses that explain this policy failure. First, JSY led to a mismatch of risk across health facilities -- high-risk mothers sorted out of highest quality care at private facilities. Second, in line with the literature, public sector quality deteriorated as a result of congestion. This resulted in lower quality care for both marginal as well as infra-marginal patients at public hospitals. We show that only mothers with high socio-economic status adapted to the worsening quality of care at public hospitals by sorting into more expensive private hospitals. Third, despite increased competition, private hospitals maintained high prices, crowding out riskier and poorer mothers. We do not find evidence that private hospitals improved healthcare quality to justify higher prices. The second chapter titled "Electric Stoves as a Solution for Household Air Pollution" is an interdisciplinary field-based research study that studies the role of reliable electricity in inducing rural Indian households to switch away from dirty cooking fuels towards a clean cooking technology, induction cookstoves, thereby reducing the exposure to high levels of indoor air pollution. We collected minute-by-minute data on electricity availability, electric induction stove use, and kitchen and outdoor particulate pollution in a sample of rural Indian households for one year. Using within household-month variation generated by unpredictable outages, we estimate the effects of electricity availability and electric induction stove use on kitchen PM2.5 concentration at each hour of the day. Electricity availability reduces kitchen PM2.5 by up to 50 ??/?3, which is between 10 and 20 percent of peak concentrations during cooking hours. Induction stove use instrumented by electricity availability reduces PM2.5 in kitchens by 200-450 ??/?3 during cooking hours. The final chapter titled "Can Large-Scale Conditional Cash Transfers Resolve the Fertility-Sex Ratio Trade-off? Evidence from India" studies a large-scale conditional cash transfer (CCT) scheme Ladli Laxmi Yojana that offered cash incentives to households upon the birth of girl children. The policy also offered substantial incentive for investing in girls' education. In my evaluation of the Ladli Laxmi Yojana in Madhya Pradesh, India. I find that financial incentives aimed at the girl child increased average fertility by about 0.15 children per household (on baseline average of 0.93 children) children per household and improved sex-ratio by 3%. This points to the well known fertility-sex ratio trade-off. Moreover, these effects are quite opposite to a similar CCT scheme in Haryana (Anukriti, 2018) suggesting context dependence of such policies.

The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that numerous lung cancer deaths result every year due to radon exposure. Given this, radon education has become an important issue. The purpose of this research was to examine what action consumers had taken to respond to radon as a hazard following an education testing program and why they had taken that action. In the Fall of 1992, the Virginia citizens Consumer Council, in partnership with Virginia Cooperative Extension, conducted a radon education campaign to promote and sell radon test kits. This study is based on a follow-up telephone survey in which 100 Virginia consumers whose homes tested with high radon levels were asked what action they had taken to reduce their radon exposure. Using a proportional allocation, a sample was drawn from eight Virginia counties. statistical analysis included the use of cross tabulation tables and testing for association through the use of the gamma function. Statistically significant findings included: 1) objective risk does have an impact of hazard response; and 2) a correlation was found between how worried consumers were about their radon problem and their response to the hazard. / Master of Science

This study of all of the post secondary institutions accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools which were located in Texas determined the number that had policies regarding persons with AIDS. The study determined how long policies had been in effect and analyzed policies in order to determine commonalities and differences. An additional purpose was to examine relationships between five major variables and 18 topics which were identified as being issues likely to be addressed in institutional AIDS policies.

The practise of male traditional circumcision is severely challenged with enormous problems ranging from hospitalisation of the initiates as well as deaths of the initiates. The background of the problem is focused in the Eastern Cape Province where the researcher has noted several initiates being treated in hospitals for physical and as well for psychological problems. The objective of this study was to explore and describe newly initiated Xhosa men's experiences of traditional circumcision rites at East London in the Eastern Cape Province and to describe the guidelines for support of these newly initiated Xhosa men by public health professionals. A qualitative explorative, descriptive contextual and phenomenological design was followed. Purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants. Fourteen participants volunteered to participate in the study after they met the eligible criteria. Focused group interviews were used as a method for data collection. Data analysis of the study showed that there are several factors affecting newly initiated men whilst undergoing circumcision rites. These factors can present at any of the three circumcision stages i.e. pre-circumcision, peri-circumcision and post-circumcision. The recommendations of the study strongly suggest a cultural competence in rendering effective health care services to culturally and ethnically diverse clients. All the five constructs of cultural competence are entailed in the support guidelines that have been developed by the researcher. They are cultural awareness, cultural knowledge, cultural skill, cultural encounter and cultural desire. Finally limitation of the study and the need for a further research has been clearly stated. / Health Studies / M.A.

Food is one of the main routes by which xenobiotic (synthetic) chemicals enter the body of man and wildlife. The routes could be from wrappers in which the foods are presented with possible transfer of the compounds to consumers, hence need for regular screening. The research work is aimed at investigating possible prevalence of phthalate esters in selected foods (cheese, polony and vienna) and their plastic wrappers from commercial stores in Tshwane metropolis. Food samples were purchased from selected stores, taken to the laboratory and stored at 4oC until analysed. Analysis was done by soxhlet extraction while determination and quantification of phthalates was carried out using Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID). Quality assurance of the process was by standard addition of the phthalate ester standards. Results obtained revealed good chromatographic separation of the analysed esters which ranged from 5.55 min for Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) to 8.96 min for Benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP). Instrumental detection limit of the esters varied from 0.03 - 0.05 μg/kg. The percentage recovery of the phthalate esters ranged from 75 – 90% from spiked cheese samples; 33 – 66% from spiked polony samples and 69 – 99% from spiked vienna samples. These recoveries are quite acceptable and applicable to the analysis and quantification of the compounds in the samples with the exception of Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) (33%); DMP (34%) and BBP (46 %) in polony samples. Results from chromatographic quantification revealed the absence of or non-detection of most of the analysed phthalate esters in the selected food samples. However, level of 0.031 μg/kg of BBP - 0.816 μg/kg of DMP were obtained in some of the analysed samples. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Science)

Breast cancer poses a serious public health concern. This case-control study describes the relationship of night-shift working on the development of breast cancer in 57 women diagnosed with breast cancer compared to 49 women with other types of cancer in the Vaal Triangle area (selected through non-probability purposive sampling from CANSA). The study revealed that women who work night-shift developed breast cancer 1.24 times more often than women who do not work nightshift (OR=1.24 [95% CI 0.52 to 2.89]). The odds ratio was further increased in women who worked rotating-shift (OR=1.44 [95% CI 0.58 to 3.59]). Night-shift work exposure was not statistically related to the development of breast cancer. It is recommended that the relationship between night-shift exposure and breast cancer risk be further explored through cross-sectional and cohort studies, and other breast cancer pathways. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

With the advent of the new National Health Act, health care in South Africa is at a critical point as this will be the first time in history that a National Health Insurance is being implemented in this country. Globally National Health Insurance has been around for more than a hundred years, however some countries with long established national health schemes are currently grappling with funding issues surrounding their health systems. South Africa should take note of these issues as it embarks on this journey. The objective of this study was to perform a literature review on how South Africa’s National Health Insurance can be funded taking cognisance of the history of the country and experiences of other countries. It is imperative for each country to achieve optimal health care funding to ensure the success and long-term sustainability of National Health Insurance. The analysis of the problems experienced by other countries revealed that balancing the three main funding options namely, allocated from the national revenue fund, user charges and or donations or grants from international organisations, is critical as the funds needed in a system to achieve coverage at an affordable cost is dependent on the current state of health care in a country. Considering South Africa’s history and current inequality in society and health care it is clear that the majority of funding for the National Health Insurance should be supplied by the national revenue fund. The required funds can either be raised by increasing existing taxes or introducing a new tax specifically aimed at financing the National Health Insurance. The use of user charges is important however, although not purely for a revenue collection point, but from a cost control point of view as well. Some studies have revealed that the lack of user charges results in a misuse of the system. / Financial Accounting / M. Phil. (Accounting Science)

Thesis (DPhil (Geography and Environmental Studies))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / Background The Disaster Management Act (Act 57 of 2002) instructs a paradigm shift from preparedness, response and recovery towards risk reduction. In order to plan for and mitigate risks, all spheres of government must firstly assess their hazards, vulnerabilities, capacity to cope and therefore risks. Studies in this regard, in South Africa, have however only focussed on current risks. Climate Change has now been accepted by leading international studies as a reality. Climate change can impact upon many aspects of life on earth. Studies to quantify the impact of climate change on water resources, biodiversity, agriculture and sustainable development are steadily increasing, but human health seem to have been neglected. Only general predictions, mostly regarding vector-borne disease and injury related to natural disasters are found in literature. Studies in South Africa have only focussed on malaria distribution. Most studies, internationally and the few in South Africa, were based on determining empirical relationships between weather parameters and disease incidence, therefore assessing only the hazard, and not the disaster risk. Methodology This study examines the impact of climate change on human health in the Western Cape, within the context of disaster management. A qualitative approach is followed and includes: · A literature overview examining predicted changes in climate on a global and regional scale, · A discussion on the known relationships and possible impacts climate change might have on human health, · A disaster risk assessment based on the status quo for a case study area, the Cape Winelands District Municipality, · An investigation into the future risks in terms of health, taking into account vulnerabilities and secondary impacts of climate change, resulting in the prioritisation of future risks. · Suggestions towards mitigation within the South African context. Results The secondary impacts of climate change were found to have the larger qualitative impact. The impact of climate change on agriculture, supporting 38% of the population can potentially destroy the livelihoods of the workforce, resulting in poverty-related disease. Other impacts identified were injuries and disease relating to temperature, floods, fire and water quality. Conclusion Risk is a function of hazard, vulnerability and capacity to cope. The impact of an external factor on a ‘spatial system’ should be a function of the impacts on all these factors. Disasters are not increasing because of the increase in the frequency of hazards, but because of the increasing vulnerability to hazards. This study illustrated that the major impacts of the external factor could actually be on the vulnerabilities and the indirect impacts, and not on the hazard itself. Climate change poses a threat to many aspects of the causative links that should be addressed by disaster management, and its impacts should be researched further to determine links and vulnerabilities. This research also illustrates that slow onset disasters hold the potential to destroy just as much as extreme events such as Katrina, Rita or a tsunami. It also reiterates that secondary impacts may not be as obvious, but are certainly not of secondary importance.