With yearly rates ranking clearly above world average in Europe, suicide constitutes a substantial public health problem. Because of that, prevention has become a major concern for German mental health institutions. A requirement for successful prevention strategies is to address all key factors that contribute to suicidality. It is highly relevant in this respect that suicidal behaviour itself exhibits a social gradient: drawing on the relevant literature, low socioeconomic status (SES) and a high extent of social isolation (SI) are related to increased suicide risks (Lorant et al. 2005; Li et al. 2011; Qin et al. 2003; Agerbo et al. 2007). The purpose of this study was therefore to add to these findings and to further investigate associations of SES and SI with suicide in order to define starting points for public health interventions. It was consequently hypothesized that lower individual levels of SES and higher individual levels of SI are correlated with increased suicide rates. SI potentially compromises the perception of social support in stressful live events associated with low SES (Cohen et al. 2006; Kumari et al. 2010). Since such life events correlate with suicidal behavior (Beautrais et al. 1997; Cohen et al. 2019), the effects of low SES were further hypothesized to be aggravated in individuals with high SI levels (SES x SI interaction). In order to test the hypotheses, all 149.033 suicide deaths between 1997 and 2010 (T = 14 years) were extracted from the official German death record as coded by ICD categories E950 - E959 for 1997 and X60 - X84 for the years from 1998 onwards, respectively. Information on SES and SI was gained by merging the dataset with Germany’s main household survey, i.e. the Microcensus. In accordance with the existing literature, established indexes on occupational status (ISEI, Ganzeboom & Treiman 1996) and educational achievements (CASMIN, König et al. 1988) were applied as well as items on income, minor employment, unemployment, the number of received public transfers and the reception of social bene fits due to unemployment (ALG I/II) in order to capture SES. SI was proxied with variables measuring single marital status, living in a one-person-household and relocations throughout the year before the survey was conducted. Due to German data protection regulations that do not permit the analysis of death record data based on individual level information, suicide deaths were examined as aggregated rates at the level of N = 390 administrative districts. In order to deal with two problems associated with this kind of statistical analysis, Prentice and Sheppard’s model for aggregate data (1995) was applied accounting for potential estimation biases due to differences in baseline suicide rates between districts and between time periods. The model specification further corrected for spatial effect correlations. An important limitation to this procedure is that the estimates represent a blend of effects at the individual and district levels. However, an adequate solution is only available through the application of individual level data. The statistical analysis turned out the following results: The positive effect on suicide rates of unemployment and the negative effect of income as two out of seven SES proxies and the positive effect of living in a one-person-household as one out of three SI proxies validate the proposed hypotheses on the relations of SES and SI with suicide rates. Confirming the hypothesis on SI mediating SES effects, the model revealed positive effects on suicide rates of income decreases in single individuals. Likewise, we observed positive effects on district suicide rates for decreasing levels of CASMIN in district population shares who had relocated throughout the past year. In contradiction to the theoretical claims, however, increases in CASMIN scores were found to result in positive effects on suicide rates just as a history of relocation prior to suicide was related to decreasing suicide rates. Furthermore, decreases in income were found to result in negative effects on suicide rates in the district population of persons living in a one-person-household. The results indicating associations of SES and SI with increases in district suicide rates represent appropriate starting points for the definition of suicide prevention strategies. Thus, particularly the unemployed, individuals with low incomes, persons living in one-person-households and relocated individuals with lower educational levels should be targeted by public health interventions. Moreover, the observations of the present study clearly demonstrate the significance of longitudinal individual level data for public health policies. Respective research incorporating such data would permit a better understanding of the causal mechanisms resulting in suicidality and help to further investigate the robustness of the shown results. By this means, prevention strategies could be better adapted to the specfic needs of the individuals under concern. Regarding the findings contradicting the theoretical claims, it needs to be mentioned that associations of low SES and high SI levels with increases in suicide risks can not be ruled out at the individual level. Rather, the observed inconsistent effects might be attributable to differences in district compositions than to differences in characteristics of the respective subjects. Also a statistical separation of compositional effects from effects of individual traits would be made possible by including individual level data in future work.:Abbrevations II Tables II 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Suicide - A Global Health Burden 1 1.2 Risk Factors and Etiology of Suicide 1 1.3 Suicide Prevention 2 1.4 Social Disparities in Suicide 2 1.4.1 Socioeconomic Status 2 1.4.2 Social Isolation 3 1.4.3 Health Inequalities and Health Inequities 4 1.4.4 Causation and Selection 5 1.4.5 Individual Life Courses 7 1.5 Stress and Diathesis 8 1.5.1 Critical Life Events 9 1.6 Neurobiological Correlates of Suicidality 9 1.6.1 Neurobiological Correlates of SES and SI 10 1.7 SES, SI and Social Support 11 1.8 Aims of the Thesis 11 1.9 Methods 12 2 Original Publication 14 Summary 23 References 26 Supplementary Materials - Further Statistical Tests & Models 41 Structural Breaks in Suicide Numbers 41 Age- and Gender-Adjustment of District Suicide Rates 42 Alternate Model Specifications Anlagen i Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit i Spezifizierung des eigenen wissenschaftlichen Beitrags iii Danksagung iii

Este estudo trata da utilização e acesso a serviços de saúde por idosos rurais, o qual se insere em um projeto intitulado "Determinantes Sociais e Interfaces com a Mobilidade de Usuários: análise dos fluxos e utilização de serviços de saúde". Busca-se conhecer os problemas de saúde que afetam os idosos rurais de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, levando em conta a situação econômica e social, as dinâmicas familiares e as estratégias que integram práticas de controle e prevenção em saúde e doença. Trata-se de um estudo híbrido, com desenho epidemiológico descritivo e uma abordagem qualitativa com 30 idosos entrevistados. Utilizou-se a estatística descritiva por meio de freqüência simples para os dados quantificáveis e a análise de conteúdo do tipo temático, na etapa qualitativa. Entre os resultados encontrou-se predominância masculina, com idade média de 67,8 anos, brancos, católicos e com baixa escolaridade. Com relação ao estado civil a maioria é casada, predominando mulheres na viuvez. A caracterização socioeconômica mostrou que a maioria dos idosos morava com familiares em residência própria, e apresentaram melhoria das condições de vida após o benefício da aposentadoria. Em relação à saúde, a maioria dos idosos entrevistados referiu como boa, sendo que as mulheres apresentaram mais queixas, se comparadas aos homens. Quanto aos serviços de saúde, mais da metade declarou utilizar habitualmente a Rede Municipal, em conseqüência dos problemas crônicos, acessando a Rede básica. Os principais motivos para não recorrerem aos serviços de saúde, mesmo em caso de necessidade, estão relacionados aos recursos financeiros insuficientes, demora no atendimento, ausência de transporte, uso de automedicação e ausência de profissionais médicos. Esses resultados expressam as desigualdades sociais como reflexos na saúde, as dificuldade de acesso funcional e geográfico, já que a maioria dos serviços de saúde encontra-se fora da área rural, havendo, ainda, a insuficiência de transporte em quantidade e freqüência aos locais de atendimento. A análise das trajetórias terapêuticas apontou para a diversidade de situações e estratégias de saúde desenvolvidas pelos usuários e pelo Município. / This study addresses the use of and access to health services by rural elderly subjects. It is linked to the project "Social Determinants and Interfaces with Users' Mobility: Analysis of Flows and Health Service Usage". Having the rural area and local development processes as background, it is intended to learn of life contexts and health problems which affect the elderly. An account is made of economical and social situation, family dynamics and strategies integrating practices for health and illnesses' control and prevention. The study is aimed at characterizing and understanding social determinants in flows of health service usage by rural residents 60 years old or more. Their therapeutic trajectories and mobility is considered. This is a hybrid study with an epidemiological descriptive design and a qualitative approach. Data were obtained from a structured interview with 30 elderly subjects in rural households. Descriptive statistics was used by means of simple frequency for quantitative data and thematic content analysis in the qualitative phase. Results indicated male predominance. Average age was 67.8. They were mostly white, catholic and bore low educational status. As for marital status, most were married; widows were predominant. Socioeconomical features indicated most elderly lived with family at their own home. They experienced better life conditions after received retirement funds. As far as health was concerned, most regarded themselves as healthy. Elderly women presented more complaints compared to men. When it came to health services use, more than half declared they often turned to the public local network due to chronic health problems. Main reasons not to turn to health services, even when needed, involved lack of financial resources; long waiting; transportation constraints; automedication practices; and lack of physicians. Such results revealed social inequalities such as reflexes in health, difficulties associated with functional and geographical access because most health services were available out of rural areas. There was not enough and frequent transportation to other health centers either. These findings highlight the diversity of situations and health strategies developed by users and the municipality. / Este estudio trata de la utilización y acceso a servicios de salud por ancianos rurales, se insiere en un proyecto intitulado "Determinantes Sociales e Interfaces con la Movilidad de Usuarios: análisis de los flujos y utilización de servicios de salud". Busca conocer los problemas de salud que afectan los ancianos rurales de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, llevando en cuenta la situación económica y social, las dinámicas familiares y las estrategias que integran prácticas de control y prevención en salud y enfermedad. Se trata de un estudio híbrido con dibujo epidemiológico descriptivo y un abordaje cualitativo en 30 ancianos entrevistados. Se utilizó la estadística descriptiva a través de frecuencia simple para los datos cuantificables y el análisis de contenido del tipo temático, en la etapa cualitativa. Entre los resultados se encontró predominancia masculina, con edad mediana de 67,8 años, blancos, católicos y con baja escolaridad. Con relación al estado civil la mayoría es casada, predominando mujeres en la viudez. La caracterización socioeconómica mostró que la mayoría de los ancianos vive con familiares en residencia propia, y presentaron mejoras de las condiciones de vida después del beneficio de la jubilación. En relación a la salud, la mayoría de los ancianos refirió como buena, siendo que las mujeres presentan más quejas si comparadas a los hombres. Cuanto a los servicios de salud, más de la mitad declaró utilizar habitualmente la red municipal, en consecuencia de los problemas crónicos, accediendo a la red básica. Los principales motivos para que no recurran a los servicios de salud, mismo en caso de necesidad, están relacionados a los recursos financieros insuficientes; tardar en ser atendido; ausencia de transporte; uso de automedicación y ausencia de profesionales médicos. Esos resultados expresan las desigualdades sociales como reflejos en la salud, las dificultades de acceso funcional y geográfico, ya que la mayoría de los servicios de salud se encuentran fuera el área rural, donde hay, todavía, la insuficiencia de transporte en cantidad y frecuencia a los locales de atendimiento. El análisis de las trayectorias terapéuticas señaló a la diversidad de situaciones y estrategias de salud desarrolladas por los usuarios y por el municipio.

Este estudo trata da utilização e acesso a serviços de saúde por idosos rurais, o qual se insere em um projeto intitulado "Determinantes Sociais e Interfaces com a Mobilidade de Usuários: análise dos fluxos e utilização de serviços de saúde". Busca-se conhecer os problemas de saúde que afetam os idosos rurais de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, levando em conta a situação econômica e social, as dinâmicas familiares e as estratégias que integram práticas de controle e prevenção em saúde e doença. Trata-se de um estudo híbrido, com desenho epidemiológico descritivo e uma abordagem qualitativa com 30 idosos entrevistados. Utilizou-se a estatística descritiva por meio de freqüência simples para os dados quantificáveis e a análise de conteúdo do tipo temático, na etapa qualitativa. Entre os resultados encontrou-se predominância masculina, com idade média de 67,8 anos, brancos, católicos e com baixa escolaridade. Com relação ao estado civil a maioria é casada, predominando mulheres na viuvez. A caracterização socioeconômica mostrou que a maioria dos idosos morava com familiares em residência própria, e apresentaram melhoria das condições de vida após o benefício da aposentadoria. Em relação à saúde, a maioria dos idosos entrevistados referiu como boa, sendo que as mulheres apresentaram mais queixas, se comparadas aos homens. Quanto aos serviços de saúde, mais da metade declarou utilizar habitualmente a Rede Municipal, em conseqüência dos problemas crônicos, acessando a Rede básica. Os principais motivos para não recorrerem aos serviços de saúde, mesmo em caso de necessidade, estão relacionados aos recursos financeiros insuficientes, demora no atendimento, ausência de transporte, uso de automedicação e ausência de profissionais médicos. Esses resultados expressam as desigualdades sociais como reflexos na saúde, as dificuldade de acesso funcional e geográfico, já que a maioria dos serviços de saúde encontra-se fora da área rural, havendo, ainda, a insuficiência de transporte em quantidade e freqüência aos locais de atendimento. A análise das trajetórias terapêuticas apontou para a diversidade de situações e estratégias de saúde desenvolvidas pelos usuários e pelo Município. / This study addresses the use of and access to health services by rural elderly subjects. It is linked to the project "Social Determinants and Interfaces with Users' Mobility: Analysis of Flows and Health Service Usage". Having the rural area and local development processes as background, it is intended to learn of life contexts and health problems which affect the elderly. An account is made of economical and social situation, family dynamics and strategies integrating practices for health and illnesses' control and prevention. The study is aimed at characterizing and understanding social determinants in flows of health service usage by rural residents 60 years old or more. Their therapeutic trajectories and mobility is considered. This is a hybrid study with an epidemiological descriptive design and a qualitative approach. Data were obtained from a structured interview with 30 elderly subjects in rural households. Descriptive statistics was used by means of simple frequency for quantitative data and thematic content analysis in the qualitative phase. Results indicated male predominance. Average age was 67.8. They were mostly white, catholic and bore low educational status. As for marital status, most were married; widows were predominant. Socioeconomical features indicated most elderly lived with family at their own home. They experienced better life conditions after received retirement funds. As far as health was concerned, most regarded themselves as healthy. Elderly women presented more complaints compared to men. When it came to health services use, more than half declared they often turned to the public local network due to chronic health problems. Main reasons not to turn to health services, even when needed, involved lack of financial resources; long waiting; transportation constraints; automedication practices; and lack of physicians. Such results revealed social inequalities such as reflexes in health, difficulties associated with functional and geographical access because most health services were available out of rural areas. There was not enough and frequent transportation to other health centers either. These findings highlight the diversity of situations and health strategies developed by users and the municipality. / Este estudio trata de la utilización y acceso a servicios de salud por ancianos rurales, se insiere en un proyecto intitulado "Determinantes Sociales e Interfaces con la Movilidad de Usuarios: análisis de los flujos y utilización de servicios de salud". Busca conocer los problemas de salud que afectan los ancianos rurales de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, llevando en cuenta la situación económica y social, las dinámicas familiares y las estrategias que integran prácticas de control y prevención en salud y enfermedad. Se trata de un estudio híbrido con dibujo epidemiológico descriptivo y un abordaje cualitativo en 30 ancianos entrevistados. Se utilizó la estadística descriptiva a través de frecuencia simple para los datos cuantificables y el análisis de contenido del tipo temático, en la etapa cualitativa. Entre los resultados se encontró predominancia masculina, con edad mediana de 67,8 años, blancos, católicos y con baja escolaridad. Con relación al estado civil la mayoría es casada, predominando mujeres en la viudez. La caracterización socioeconómica mostró que la mayoría de los ancianos vive con familiares en residencia propia, y presentaron mejoras de las condiciones de vida después del beneficio de la jubilación. En relación a la salud, la mayoría de los ancianos refirió como buena, siendo que las mujeres presentan más quejas si comparadas a los hombres. Cuanto a los servicios de salud, más de la mitad declaró utilizar habitualmente la red municipal, en consecuencia de los problemas crónicos, accediendo a la red básica. Los principales motivos para que no recurran a los servicios de salud, mismo en caso de necesidad, están relacionados a los recursos financieros insuficientes; tardar en ser atendido; ausencia de transporte; uso de automedicación y ausencia de profesionales médicos. Esos resultados expresan las desigualdades sociales como reflejos en la salud, las dificultades de acceso funcional y geográfico, ya que la mayoría de los servicios de salud se encuentran fuera el área rural, donde hay, todavía, la insuficiencia de transporte en cantidad y frecuencia a los locales de atendimiento. El análisis de las trayectorias terapéuticas señaló a la diversidad de situaciones y estrategias de salud desarrolladas por los usuarios y por el municipio.

Este estudo trata da utilização e acesso a serviços de saúde por idosos rurais, o qual se insere em um projeto intitulado "Determinantes Sociais e Interfaces com a Mobilidade de Usuários: análise dos fluxos e utilização de serviços de saúde". Busca-se conhecer os problemas de saúde que afetam os idosos rurais de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, levando em conta a situação econômica e social, as dinâmicas familiares e as estratégias que integram práticas de controle e prevenção em saúde e doença. Trata-se de um estudo híbrido, com desenho epidemiológico descritivo e uma abordagem qualitativa com 30 idosos entrevistados. Utilizou-se a estatística descritiva por meio de freqüência simples para os dados quantificáveis e a análise de conteúdo do tipo temático, na etapa qualitativa. Entre os resultados encontrou-se predominância masculina, com idade média de 67,8 anos, brancos, católicos e com baixa escolaridade. Com relação ao estado civil a maioria é casada, predominando mulheres na viuvez. A caracterização socioeconômica mostrou que a maioria dos idosos morava com familiares em residência própria, e apresentaram melhoria das condições de vida após o benefício da aposentadoria. Em relação à saúde, a maioria dos idosos entrevistados referiu como boa, sendo que as mulheres apresentaram mais queixas, se comparadas aos homens. Quanto aos serviços de saúde, mais da metade declarou utilizar habitualmente a Rede Municipal, em conseqüência dos problemas crônicos, acessando a Rede básica. Os principais motivos para não recorrerem aos serviços de saúde, mesmo em caso de necessidade, estão relacionados aos recursos financeiros insuficientes, demora no atendimento, ausência de transporte, uso de automedicação e ausência de profissionais médicos. Esses resultados expressam as desigualdades sociais como reflexos na saúde, as dificuldade de acesso funcional e geográfico, já que a maioria dos serviços de saúde encontra-se fora da área rural, havendo, ainda, a insuficiência de transporte em quantidade e freqüência aos locais de atendimento. A análise das trajetórias terapêuticas apontou para a diversidade de situações e estratégias de saúde desenvolvidas pelos usuários e pelo Município. / This study addresses the use of and access to health services by rural elderly subjects. It is linked to the project "Social Determinants and Interfaces with Users' Mobility: Analysis of Flows and Health Service Usage". Having the rural area and local development processes as background, it is intended to learn of life contexts and health problems which affect the elderly. An account is made of economical and social situation, family dynamics and strategies integrating practices for health and illnesses' control and prevention. The study is aimed at characterizing and understanding social determinants in flows of health service usage by rural residents 60 years old or more. Their therapeutic trajectories and mobility is considered. This is a hybrid study with an epidemiological descriptive design and a qualitative approach. Data were obtained from a structured interview with 30 elderly subjects in rural households. Descriptive statistics was used by means of simple frequency for quantitative data and thematic content analysis in the qualitative phase. Results indicated male predominance. Average age was 67.8. They were mostly white, catholic and bore low educational status. As for marital status, most were married; widows were predominant. Socioeconomical features indicated most elderly lived with family at their own home. They experienced better life conditions after received retirement funds. As far as health was concerned, most regarded themselves as healthy. Elderly women presented more complaints compared to men. When it came to health services use, more than half declared they often turned to the public local network due to chronic health problems. Main reasons not to turn to health services, even when needed, involved lack of financial resources; long waiting; transportation constraints; automedication practices; and lack of physicians. Such results revealed social inequalities such as reflexes in health, difficulties associated with functional and geographical access because most health services were available out of rural areas. There was not enough and frequent transportation to other health centers either. These findings highlight the diversity of situations and health strategies developed by users and the municipality. / Este estudio trata de la utilización y acceso a servicios de salud por ancianos rurales, se insiere en un proyecto intitulado "Determinantes Sociales e Interfaces con la Movilidad de Usuarios: análisis de los flujos y utilización de servicios de salud". Busca conocer los problemas de salud que afectan los ancianos rurales de Santana da Boa Vista/RS, llevando en cuenta la situación económica y social, las dinámicas familiares y las estrategias que integran prácticas de control y prevención en salud y enfermedad. Se trata de un estudio híbrido con dibujo epidemiológico descriptivo y un abordaje cualitativo en 30 ancianos entrevistados. Se utilizó la estadística descriptiva a través de frecuencia simple para los datos cuantificables y el análisis de contenido del tipo temático, en la etapa cualitativa. Entre los resultados se encontró predominancia masculina, con edad mediana de 67,8 años, blancos, católicos y con baja escolaridad. Con relación al estado civil la mayoría es casada, predominando mujeres en la viudez. La caracterización socioeconómica mostró que la mayoría de los ancianos vive con familiares en residencia propia, y presentaron mejoras de las condiciones de vida después del beneficio de la jubilación. En relación a la salud, la mayoría de los ancianos refirió como buena, siendo que las mujeres presentan más quejas si comparadas a los hombres. Cuanto a los servicios de salud, más de la mitad declaró utilizar habitualmente la red municipal, en consecuencia de los problemas crónicos, accediendo a la red básica. Los principales motivos para que no recurran a los servicios de salud, mismo en caso de necesidad, están relacionados a los recursos financieros insuficientes; tardar en ser atendido; ausencia de transporte; uso de automedicación y ausencia de profesionales médicos. Esos resultados expresan las desigualdades sociales como reflejos en la salud, las dificultades de acceso funcional y geográfico, ya que la mayoría de los servicios de salud se encuentran fuera el área rural, donde hay, todavía, la insuficiencia de transporte en cantidad y frecuencia a los locales de atendimiento. El análisis de las trayectorias terapéuticas señaló a la diversidad de situaciones y estrategias de salud desarrolladas por los usuarios y por el municipio.