The refrigerant circuits of car air-conditioning systems are fitted with so-called open type compressors, because there is only a lip seal preventing the refrigerant from leaking from the compressor housing to the atmosphere. In addition, the cycle uses damping elements between the compressor and the other components on the suction and pressure lines to reduce vibration and noise transfer from the engine to the car body. Both the lip seal and damping elements result in loss of refrigerant as they are made from elastomers and leak with age, and, under high temperature conditions inside the engine room, these elements also allow a relatively high permeation of the refrigerant gas to the atmosphere. With very high refrigerant losses in the older R12 -cooling cycles and the damage caused by this gas to the ozone layer in the stratosphere, the Montreal protocol phased out this refrigerant and the car industry was forced to revert completely to R134a until 1994/95. R134a has no ozone depletion potential, but it has a direct global warming potential, and, therefore, leakages also have to be minimised. R134a has, because of its molecular size, a high permeation potential and, hence, all the refrigerant hoses are lined internally. Unfortunately, these hoses also leak with age and significant refrigerant loss will occur [1] R134a can therefore only be viewed as a solution until an alternative refrigerant with no direct global warming potential has been developed. Candidates for new refrigerants are natural substances such as hydrocarbons or carbon dioxide [2]. Unfortunately, both substances have disadvantages and their use is restricted to special cases, for e.g. hydrocarbons are flammable and are not used in car air-conditioners, but in Germany it is used as a refrigerant in household refrigerators with hermetic cycles. What makes the implementation of carbon dioxide (CO2) difficult are the high system pressures and the low critical point [3].

D.Ing. / According to literature 6% of South Africa’s primary energy consumption could be saved if heat pumps were used to their full technical potential. Although there is world-wide interest in the use of heat pumps and considerable effort has been expended on heat-pump research, heat pumps are not commonly used in South Africa. The objective of this thesis is to determine the possibility of a combined evaporator or condenser with a normal pump. This will reduce cost and space of a normal heat pump and make heat pumps economically more competitive against resistance element geysers. In order to investigate this combination research is done on semicircular heat exchangers, since this is the primary geometry of the heating channels in the condenser pump. Analyses is done experimentally on a standard 28.58 mm hard drawn copper tube, cut trough the middle, with a 1.6 mm copper plate in between to obtain a semicircular heat exchanger. Turbulent flow is investigated with the flat side of the semicircular heat exchanger being horizontal or vertical, a spiralled and a s-shape semicircular heat exchanger. In each case the heat transfer coefficient is determined with the use of the Wilson plot technique. It is found that there is a significant increase in Nusselt number for semicircular heat exchangers above a normal tube-in-tube heat exchanger but the pressure loss coefficient increase with an equal amount.

This work is aimed to design and implement software for simulating operational properties of heat pumps and process data from measurements. Work contains the issue of heat pumps, their principle of functionality, different types of systems and coefficients used for rating of efficiency of heat pumps. Next it contains physical or electrical parameters that needs to be measured by designed system. The result is functional software, which contains mathematical library written in C++ and graphical user interface written in C#.

This study aims to rationalize the consumption of thermal energy in residential buildings by recovering heat from wastewater inside the building before entering the central sewage network outside the building, by conducting an analytical study for a residential tower in Syria to find out the coverage percentage of the heat energy recovered from wastewater for the heating and domestic hot water loads needed for the tower, and calculating the percentage of reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2) gases. It is a simple technology as the thermal recovery system consists of three main components, which are in order: a wastewater tank, heat exchangers, and a heat pump. The research begins with an introduction that consists of the importance of wastewater and the waste heat energy it carries. After that, there are some case studies, research problem, its importance, the aim of the research, and finally the research methodology. In the first chapter, we talked about the concept of heat recovery from wastewater in general, methods of heat recovery, and the most important advantages and disadvantages of this process. It also includes an identification of the main parts used in this technology and how it works, especially the exchangers and the heat pump. This chapter also addresses the problem of forming a layer of biofilms on the surface of heat exchangers from the wastewater side and the most important methods used to treat it. We move on to the second chapter, in which we review the most important facilities for heat recovery from wastewater that have been viewed. Then comes the third chapter in which the heat recovery process was conducted for a nine storey residential tower in Syria, each floor has four apartments, where we first calculated the rate of wastewater flow for the entire tower, and we proposed a heat recovery system (physical model) inside the tower. Then the mathematical equations for heat recovery and the solution of these equations were developed based on some necessary assumptions needed in the solution process to know the most important results desired in this field. It also included the calculation of the coverage ratio of the heat energy recovered from the wastewater for the domestic hot water and heating loads, as well as the calculation of the mass and percentage of the reduction of carbon emitted to the atmosphere. Then simple economic feasibility was also conducted in this chapter to know the daily financial savings as a result of using this technology. The research ends with the most important conclusions and future research that have been reached and the conclusion of the research. The most important results show that the average coverage percentage of heat energy recovered from wastewater for heating load in residential buildings ranges between [30-56%]. It was also found that the average coverage percentage of heat energy recovered from wastewater for domestic hot water load ranges between [65-100%].

No description available.

With a clear correlation between climate change and rising CO2 emissions, decarbonization has garnered serious interest in many sectors to limit the adverse effects of global warming. Heating and cooling systems have been a focus of decarbonization efforts, with heat pumps becoming more popular in the United States and abroad. In fact, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning accounts for nearly 27% of total energy use in the United States [1]. Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) utilizing borehole heat exchangers (BHE) have been shown to be an effective method of electrifying heating and cooling systems, maintaining some of the best performance for any electrified heating and cooling system currently available. Electrification, however, does come with some significant challenges. One of particular importance is the significant increase in peak demand during the heating season, which can result in a serious cost increase for the operator of the electric heating system, as well as adding operational complexities to grid operations by shifting from a summer peak to a winter peak as more heating loads are electrified. Thermal energy storage (TES) has been shown to be effective in mitigating the increase in peak demand that is seen with electrified heating and cooling systems. By storing thermal energy during off-peak hours, demand can be effectively shifted away from the peak hours. In this study, we investigate the potential of a ground source heat pump coupled with a TES system, in the form of water storage tanks, for the University of Massachusetts, as a way of decarbonizing the institution’s HVAC system while minimizing operating and installed costs.

No description available.

Portland General Electric has proposed coupling one or more water tanks with two heat pumps in order to perform load-shifting in residential customer heating and cooling applications. By using the water tanks as a thermal storage unit, this project attempts to partially decouple energy consumption from generation to provide peak demand reduction and to better facilitate the integration of variable renewable energy resources. A scoping study was performed to evaluate the potential impact of this project if implemented in single family homes in Portland, Oregon. This study revealed that the system could provide meaningful savings in the cost of electricity to both the customer and utility. Additionally, an optimization algorithm was developed to dictate system operation and to maximize gains to the utility. Evolutionary algorithms were explored in an attempt to increase the effectiveness of the algorithm's search in limited computation time. Ultimately, an evolution strategy was selected as the most suitable based on tests run in winter and spring months. A genetic algorithm was then developed to handle fixed-speed heat pump operation for compatibility with an alpha-system prototype that has been developed by the research team.

<p>The aim of this report was to do a case study at a geothermal heating system which has been in operation for about 5 years, and study if its performance has changed during this period of time. A literature study about the processes involved was also done in purpose of background knowledge.</p><p>The tenant-owner’s association Duvan at Petterslundsgatan in Uppsala installed year 1999-2000 a geothermal heating system. The purpose of this installation was that they hoped it would lead to a smaller usage of district heating which would lead to a reduction of the heating expenses for their buildings. The geothermal heating system consists of 19 energy wells and 4 geothermal heat pumps, and it is one of the first systems of that size in the region of Uppsala. Due to that, the system at Duvan is referred to as a reference project for geothermal heating system of this size. The reason that the study was made after 5 years is that it takes about 5 years before the heat equilibrium in the bedrock has been stabilized after a geothermal heat system has been installed. The temperature in the bedrock will decrease during this 5 year period and the performance of the system will change.</p><p>In this report factors such as geology, groundwater levels and temperature changes are examined to get a summery of the processes that extract heat from the bedrock and convert it to conventional energy. Data from the compressors has been examined, energy usage before and after the installation of the system has been compared and finally an economical calculation of the tenant-owner’s association energy consumption has been made. All the main points in this report point to the fact that the system is working properly and that it has contributed to an economical benefit regarding to the energy usage.</p> / <p>Syftet med detta examensarbete var att göra en fallstudie på ett befintligt bergvärmesystem som har varit i drift i 5 år, och studera om dess prestanda har förändrats under den tid som systemet använts. Som bakgrund genomfördes även en litteraturstudie över de processer som äger rum då geotermisk energi kan utvinnas samt hur denna energi konverteras till konventionell energi för uppvärmning av lokaler.</p><p>Bostadsrättsföreningen Duvan på Petterslundsgatan i Uppsala installerade under år 1999-2000 ett bergvärmesystem som skulle leda till ett mindre användande av fjärrvärme och således bidra till att utgifterna för inköp av energi skulle minska. Systemet består av 19 energibrunnar och 4 värmepumpar, och är en av de första anläggningarna av denna storlek i Uppsala regionen. Detta gör att Bostadsrättsföreningen Duvan ses som ett referensobjekt för anläggningar av denna storlek. Anledningen till att studien gjordes vid denna tidpunkt var att det tar ungefär 5 år innan värmebalansen i berggrunden stabiliseras när ett bergvärmesystem installeras, och temperaturen i berggrunden kommer under denna period minska vilket leder till prestandaförändringar hos värmepumpen. Denna femårsperiod har nu gått och en relevant undersökning av systemet har kunnat göras.</p><p>I denna rapport beskrivs bakomliggande parametrar så som geologi, grundvattennivåer och temperaturförändringar som behövs för att få en överblick över situationen och kunna ge en inblick i vad som påverkar utvinningen av energi i berggrunden. Data från kompressorernas drifttider och förbrukning av energi före och efter installationen av bergvärmesystemet jämförs och slutligen görs en ekonomisk kalkyl för bostadsrättsföreningens energiförbrukning. Alla de punkter som rapporten undersöker visar att systemet fungerar väl och att det bidragit till en ekonomisk vinst med avseende på energianvändandet.</p>

Till följd av EU:s miljömål 2020 har svenska statliga och kommunala miljömål satts upp för att minska energianvändningen. EU:s 2020-mål syftar till att minska energianvändningen i Europa med 20 procent fram till år 2020 från det att målet sattes upp 2010. På kommunal nivå har detta inneburit att fastighetsbolag, privata men främst kommunala aktörer, har tvingats att se över sin energianvändning. Arbetet i denna rapport föranleds av en av de besparingsåtgärder som har vidtagits nämligen att komplettera befintliga fjärrvärmeuppvärmningssystem med värmepumpar. Uppdraget avser utveckling och utvärdering av en beräkningsmodell för denna typ av system. För att skapa ett pålitligt beslutsunderlag i arbetet med att minska energianvändningen krävs välgrundade beräkningar. Befintliga beräkningsmodeller lägger stor vikt vid ekonomiska faktorer och tar därmed liten hänsyn till tekniska aspekter och omgivande faktorer. Målet med arbetet har varit att skapa en beräkningsmodell vilken i större utsträckning speglar den faktiska situationen och påvisar ett mer välgrundat beslutsunderlag. Arbetet inleddes med en litteraturstudie vilken innefattade relevant forskning och grundläggande fakta om värmepumpar och fjärrvärmesystem. Beräkningsmodellen har utvecklats löpande under projektet där nya funktioner samt ny information ständigt tillkommit. Projektet har resulterat i en fungerande beräkningsmodell vilken innefattar fler parametrar än tidigare motsvarigheter. Tillsammans med uppdragsgivaren sattes tre olika mål upp för beräkningsmodellen, dessa var:  Att på ett intuitivt sätt presentera information och data.  Att skapa en transparent struktur vilken är enkel att följa.  Att skapa ett flöde genom modellen vilket följer en önskad arbetsgång. Dessa mål anses ha blivit uppfyllda, dock finns möjlighet till vidareutveckling. Modellen skulle exempelvis kunna kompletteras med mer automatiserade optimeringsberäkningar och justeras för att hantera andra typer av systemlösningar. / As a result of the EU's environmental 2020 goal, the Swedish government and municipal boards has put up internal goals to reduce energy consumption. EU 2020 goal aims to reduce energy consumption in Europe by 20 percent by the year 2020 from that the target was set in 2010. At the municipal level, this has meant that private but mainly public housing properties have been required to review their energy use. The work in this report is based on one of the savings measures that have been taken, which is to supplement existing district heating systems with exhaust air heat pumps. The project aims to develop a calculation model for evaluation and computation for this type of system. To create a reliable basis for decisions, efforts were made to produce just calculations. Existing computational models are focused on economic factors and thus takes little consideration of technological aspects and environmental factors. The aim of the work has been to create a computational model which more closely reflects the real situation and demonstrates a more informative decision basis. The work began with a literature review which included relevant research and basic facts about exhaust air heat pumps and district heating systems. The calculation model has been developed continuously during the project in which new functions and new information constantly has been added. The project has resulted in a working computational model which includes many more parameters than previous reviewed models. Together with the client three sub goals were set up for the model, these were:  To intuitively present information and data.  To create a transparent structure which is simple to follow.  To create a flow through the model, which follows a desired work process. These goals are considered to have been fulfilled in the developed calculation model, however, it's possible to further develop this model. The model could, for example, be supplemented with more automated optimization calculations and be adjusted to handle other kinds of heating systems.