O presente trabalho tem como objetivo comparar um modelo de formação de cavacos obtido pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF) com resultados experimentais obtidos em processos de fresamento ortogonal. A comparação se concentra na distribuição de temperatura na peça. O trabalho desenvolve um modelo para a formação de cavacos com a distribuição de temperatura na região de corte usando o software ABAQUS. Inicialmente, o modelo desenvolvido utiliza o Método Explícito de solução para a formação de cavacos durante uma interação da aresta da fresa de topo com a peça. Para a simulação da operação completa de fresamento ortogonal de uma peça com a extensão de 80 mm e espessura de 5 mm em aço AISI 4340 endurecido, o método implícito é utilizado. O material da peça é modelado como isotrópico-elasto-plástico segundo a proposta de Johnson-Cook. A comparação é realizada com velocidades de corte de 80, 100 e 150 m/mim e avanço por dente de 0,17 mm/rev para que as influências da velocidade na temperatura possam ser avaliadas. A partir da comparação desses resultados, é possível analisar a eficiência do modelo desenvolvido pelo MEF para simulação de processos de Usinagem em Altas Velocidades de Corte (HSC - High Speed Cutting). / The goal of this study is to compare a model of chip formation obtained by the Finite Element Method (FEM) with experimental results in orthogonal milling process. The comparison focuses on the temperature distribution in the workpiece. The present work develops a model for chip formation with the temperature distribution in the cutting zone using the software ABAQUS. The model starts using the explicit method of solution for the chip formation during one interaction between the insert and the workpiece. To simulate a complete operation of orthogonal milling on a workpiece 80 mm long and 5 mm thick made of AISI 4340 hardened steel, it was used the implicit method. The workpiece material is modeled as an isotropic-elastic-plastic according to the Johnson-Cook proposal. The comparison is made using cutting speeds of 80, 100 and 150 m/min and feed rate of 0.17 mm/rev to check the in uences of cutting speed on the temperature. From the comparison of these results, it is possible to assess the eciency of the model developed by FEM simulation when machining using High Speed Cutting (HSC) conditions.

Este trabalho constitui o estudo experimental de um componente importante de um ciclo de refrigeração por absorção de amônia-água - o destilador. O destilador neste ciclo, é o encarregado de produzir vapor de amônia de elevada pureza a partir de uma solução líquida concentrada de amônia-água. É proposto aqui um destilador de filme descendente composto somente por dois elementos: o gerador e o retificador. O gerador é constituído por um banco de tubos horizontais que no seu interior passa óleo térmico sintético aquecido. A solução de amônia-água concentrada escoa externamente aos tubos por filme descendente e, mediante seu aquecimento, é produzido vapor de amônia úmida. O retificador, também constituído por tubos horizontais, resfria e condensa parte desse vapor úmido, produzindo assim vapor de amônia destilada de elevada pureza. O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar experimentalmente a influência de diferentes parâmetros no funcionamento do destilador no que diz respeito à concentração e à vazão mássica de destilado de amônia produzido. Para isso, foi construído um arranjo experimental que permite variar temperatura, vazão e concentração da solução amônia-água, bem como, a temperatura do óleo térmico no gerador e da água de resfriamento no retificador. O aparelho pode trabalhar com pressão interna até 20 bar e temperatura até 150 °C. Os resultados mostraram que a concentração de amônia destilada aumenta quando incrementada a vazão mássica da solução concentrada e quando a temperatura do retificador, do gerador e da solução concentrada diminui. Porém, exceto na diminuição da temperatura do retificador, sempre quando o grau de pureza do destilado de amônia aumentava, sua vazão mássica diminuía. Foram realizados ensaios com duas concentrações de solução concentrada que são: 37 e 49 %. A pureza do destilado de amônia aumenta quanto maior for essa concentração, chegando até 99,74 %. Foram também analisados o sistema de distribuição de líquido nos tubos, o padrão de escoamento entre os tubos, bem como, avaliou-se o número de Nusselt médio para o filme descendente da mistura amônia-água. / This work presents the experimental study of an important component of an ammonia-water absorption refrigeration cycle - the distiller. The distiller is responsible for producing high purity ammonia vapor from a concentrated ammonia-water liquid solution. It is analyzed here a falling film distiller composed solely of two elements: the generator and the rectifier. The generator consists of a horizontal tube bundle which internally hot thermal synthetic oil passes through. The ammonia-water concentrated solution flows externally on the tubes making a falling film resulting in a wet ammonia vapor. The rectifier, which is also a horizontal tube bundle, cools down the wet ammonia vapor and condenses part of water content, thus producing high purity distilled ammonia vapor. The aim of this work is to analyze the influence of different parameters on the operation of the distiller, respecting the concentration and the mass flow rate of distillate ammonia produced. For that, an experimental setup that allows to vary the temperature, the mass flow rate and the concentration of the ammonia-water solution, as well as, the thermal oil temperature in the generator and the cooling water temperature in the rectifier was built. This experimental setup can work at internal pressures up to 20 bar and temperature up to 150 °C. The results showed that the distilled ammonia concentration enhances when increased the concentrated solution mass flow rate, and when the temperature of the rectifier, generator and the concentrated solution decreased. However, except in the reduction of the rectifier temperature, whenever the purity of distilled ammonia increased, its mass flow rate decreased. There were performed tests with two concentrations of the concentrated solution: 37 and 49 %. The ammonia distilled purity increases for the higher concentration, reaching up to 99.74 %. There were also analyzed the liquid distribution system on the pipes, the intertube flow mode, furthermore, the average Nusselt number for the ammonia-water falling film mixture.

No region has felt the effects of global climate change more acutely than the cryosphere, which has changed at an unprecedented rate in the past two decades. The scientific consensus is that these changes are driven largely by increasing ocean heat content at high latitudes. In southeast Greenland, acceleration and retreat of the marine-terminating glaciers contributes significantly towards global sea level rise. Circulation in the fjords which accommodate these glaciers is thought to be driven both by freshwater input and by barrier wind-driven shelf exchange. Due to a scarcity of data, particularly from winter, the balance between these two mechanisms is not fully understood. In Svalbard, increasing water temperature has decimated sea ice cover in many of the fjords, and had substantial implications for the local ecosystem. While there is a relatively comprehensive literature on shelf exchange mechanisms in Svalbard fjords, questions remain over how the internal circulation interacts with exchange mechanisms. The region shares a similar underwater topography and oceanographic setting with southeast Greenland, with marine-terminating glaciers in close proximity to warm Atlantic waters, and results from Svalbard can hence be used to inform studies of high-latitude fjord-shelf exchange in a broader context. A realistic numerical model was constructed with the aim of better understanding the interaction between Kangerdlugssuaq Fjord and the adjacent continental shelf, and quantifying heat exchange during winter. The model was initially run in an idealised configuration with winter climatological forcing fields, incorporating a parameterisation for melting at the terminus, and used to test the impact of barrier wind events. The Earth's rotation played a crucial role in the nature of the circulation and exchange in the fjord, with inflow on the right (looking up-fjord) and outflow on the left. While the heat delivered into the fjord-mouth was smaller than that observed in summer, the background internal circulation was found to efficiently distribute waters through the fjord without external forcing, and the heat delivered to the glacier terminus was comparable to summer values. Barrier winds were found to excite coastally-trapped internal waves which propagated into the fjord along the right-hand side. The process was capable of doubling the heat delivery. The process also enhanced the background circulation, likely via Stokes' Drift. The model was then adapted to simulate winter 2007-08 under historical forcing conditions. Time series of glacial melt rate, as well as the heat flux through fjord cross-sections, were constructed and compared to the variability in wind forcing. Long periods of moderate wind stress were found to induce greatly enhanced heat flux towards the ice sheet, while short, strong gusts were found to have little influence, suggesting that the timescale over which the shelf wind field varies is a key parameter in dictating wintertime heat delivery from the ocean to the Greenland Ice Sheet. An underwater glider was deployed to Isfjorden, a large fjord system in Svalbard, to measure the temperature, salinity and depth-averaged currents over the course of November 2014. Like in Kangerdlugssuaq, the circulation in Isfjorden was found to be heavily influenced by the Earth's rotation and by wind activity both locally and on the shelf. The combination of hydrography and high-resolution velocity data provided new insights, suggesting that the approach will be useful for studying high-latitude fjords in the future.

Fire is one of the main hazards associated with storage tanks containing flammable liquids. These tanks are usually closely spaced and in large groups, so where a petroleum fire occurs, adjacent tanks are susceptible to damage leading to further development of the fire. The structural behaviour such as thermal stability and failure modes of the tanks under such fire scenario are very important to the safety design and assessment of oil depots. However, no previous studies on this problem are known to the best knowledge of the author. This thesis presents a systematic exploration of the potential thermal and structural behaviours of an oil tank when one of its neighbour tanks is on fire. Under such scenario, the oil tanks are found to easily buckle under rather moderate temperature rises. The causes of such buckling failures are the reduced modulus of steel at elevated temperatures, coupled with thermally-induced stresses due to the restraint of thermal expansion. Since the temperatures reached in such structures can be several hundred Centigrade degrees, any restraint to thermal expansion can lead to the development of compressive stresses. The high susceptibility of thin shell structures to elastic buckling under low compressive stresses means that this type of failure can be easily provoked. The main objectives of this thesis were to reveal the thermal distribution patterns developed in an oil tank under the heating from an adjacent tank fire, to understand the underlying mechanism responsible for the buckling of tank structure, and to explore the influences of various thermal and geometrical parameters on the buckling temperature of the tanks. The study began with analytical solutions for stresses and deformations in a partially filled roofless cylindrical tank under an idealised axisymmetrical heating regime involving thermal discontinuity at the liquid level. The results demonstrate that large compressive circumferential membrane stresses occur near the bottom boundary for an empty tank and near the liquid level for a partially-filled tank. Heat transfer analysis was conducted to explore the temperature distribution developed in the tank when the fire reaches a steady state. Parameters and assumptions used in the adopted pool fire model were carefully examined. The results show that a rather non-uniform distribution of temperature is developed in the tank especially around the tank circumference. A simple model was then proposed to describe the temperature distribution based on the numerical heat transfer analysis. The accuracy of the proposed temperature distribution model for predicting the structure behaviour was evaluated by comparing its predictions with those using directly the temperature distribution obtained from the numerical heat transfer analysis. Extensive geometric and material nonlinear analyses were carried out to capture the buckling behaviour of the tank using both the proposed temperature distribution and that from heat transfer analysis. It was found large vertical compressive membrane stresses are induced in the tank, causing buckling. The influence of fire diameter, location, liquid filling level and tank geometry were investigated.

Timber is an inherently sustainable material which is important for future construction in the UK. In recent years many developments have been made in relation to timber technology and construction products. As the industry continues to look to construct more efficient, cost effective and sustainable buildings a number of new engineered timber products have emerged which are principally manufactured off-site. In terms of light timber frame, products such as structural insulated panels (SIPs) and engineered floor joists have emerged. For heavy timber construction, systems such as glulam and cross laminated timber (CLT) are now increasingly common. Despite many of the obvious benefits of using wood as a construction material a number of concerns still exist relating to behaviour in fire. Current fire design procedures are still reliant upon fire resistance testing and 'deemed to satisfy' rules of thumb. Understanding of 'true' fire performance and thus rational design for fire resistance requires experience of real fires. Such experience, either gathered from real fire events or large fire tests, is increasingly used to provide the knowledge required to undertake 'performance based designs' which consider both fire behaviour and holistic structural response. At present performance based structural fire design is largely limited to steel structures and less frequently concrete buildings. Many of the designs undertaken are in accordance with relevant Eurocodes which give guidance on the structural fire design for different materials. For the same approaches to be adopted for timber buildings a number of barriers need to be overcome. Engineered timber products, such as SIPs and engineered joists, are innovative technologies. However, their uptake in the UK construction market is increasing year on year. Little is known about how such systems behave in real fires. As a result the development of design rules for fire is a difficult task as failure modes are not well understood. To overcome this barrier the author has undertaken a number of laboratory and natural fire tests on SIPs and engineered floor joists to establish how such products behave and fail in real fires. The data gathered can be used to develop design approaches for engineered timber products in fire, thus negating the need to rely upon fire resistance testing. The development of design rules from the data gathered would be a progressive step towards performance based design. Realising performance based fire design for timber structures at present has three obvious barriers. Firstly, thermo-physical properties for timber exposed to natural fires are not well defined. Current guidance in standards such as EN 1995-1-2 provides data for standard fire exposure only. Movement towards design for parametric fires requires a better understanding of timber thermo-physical behaviour under different rates of heating and durations of fire exposure. Secondly, particularly in the UK, the fire performance of timber buildings is heavily influenced by the behaviour of gypsum plasterboard which is commonly used as passive fire protection. The thermal behaviour of gypsum under both standard and natural fire conditions is still not well understood. The majority of research available relating to gypsum in fire is dated, whilst board products continually evolve. Finally, the whole building behaviour aspects utilised in the fire design of steel and other structures have arisen as a result of complex numerical simulations. At present most commercial finite element codes are not appropriate for modelling entire timber buildings exposed to fire due to complexities relating to the constitutive behaviour of timber. Timber degrades differently depending upon stress state (i.e. tension or compression), temperature and importantly temperature history. In recognition of the above barriers, the author has made a number of developments. Firstly, a modified conductivity model for softwood is proposed which is shown to give acceptable depth of char and temperature predictions in timber members exposed to the heating phase of parametric fires. This model is suitable for adoption in any computational heat transfer model. Secondly, the finite element software TNO DIANA has been modified, via user supplied subroutines, to simulate large timber buildings exposed to fire by considering stress state, temperature and state history. The developments made in this engineering doctorate are intended to facilitate the progression of performance based design for timber structures. The numerical approaches adopted herein have been supported using multi-scale experimental approaches. As a result a number of novel tools for implementation in FEA models are proposed which should ultimately lead to a more rational approach to the fire design of timber buildings.

O trabalho consiste em uma análise experimental comparativa do processo de combustão e de transferência de calor ao longo de uma fornalha flamotubular. Os combustíveis utilizados são o óleo diesel e o biodiesel proveniente de óleo de fritura. Uma outra parcela deste trabalho é investigar os níveis de emissões gasosas no processo de combustão do biodiesel em fornalha flamotubular. Não seria possível realizar esta pesquisa sem uma fornalha flamotubular dotada de câmaras calorimétricas, janelas de observação e extração de gás, e totalmente instrumentada. Assim, foi efetuado em paralelo o projeto e a construção de uma fornalha calorimétrica flamotubular. Os parâmetros utilizados para se analisar os combustíveis na fornalha são: rendimento térmico, taxa de fluxo mássico, temperatura de chama e perda de carga. Observou-se que o óleo diesel apresentou maior taxa de transferência de calor para a maioria das seções expostas à chama. Na região onde o corpo da chama não está presente, a taxa de transferência de calor do biodiesel torna-se ligeiramente superior. Em relação às emissões gasosas observaram-se baixos níveis de poluentes / This work consists in a comparative experimental evaluation of the process of combustion and heat transfer along a flame tube furnace. The fuels used are diesel oil and ethyl ester from waste vegetable oil (biodiesel). Another part of this work investigates the percentage of pollutants and emissions of gases in the flame tube furnace. It would not be possible to carry out this research without a flame tube furnace endowed with calorimetric chambers, windows of observation and extraction of gases, and totally instrumented. Thus, the project and the construction of a flame tube calorimetric furnace were done parallel. The parameters used to analyze the fuels in the furnace are: thermal efficiency, mass flow rate, temperature of flame and draught loss. It was observed that diesel oil presented higher heat transfer rate in most parts of the furnace that was near the flame. In the region where the body of flame is not present, the heat transfer rate of biodiesel becomes a little higher. In relation to emission of gases, it was observed low indexes of pollutants

Sistemas de climatização de bancos de veículos vêm sendo desenvolvidos e disponibilizados como solução de microclima em resposta à crescente demanda por conforto personalizado. A influência desses sistemas na ampliação do conforto térmico dos passageiros é comprovada, sejam eles de aquecimento ou de remoção de calor. No presente trabalho foram estudadas características da troca de calor, e sua relação com aspectos ergonômicos, de um passageiro com um banco de aeronave, com e sem ativação de sistema de aquecimento. Um manequim térmico do passageiro sentado, sem produção de suor, foi desenvolvido e calibrado térmica e ergonomicamente. Em relação às características da troca de calor entre o passageiro e o banco a partir dos testes realizados neste trabalho pode-se concluir que: o fluxo de calor local depende diretamente da pressão de contato na interface do passageiro com o banco; as alterações no fluxo de calor, por aumento do nível metabólico do passageiro (MET), tem relação inversamente proporcional à resistência térmica global do assento, ou seja, para maior nível de MET a resistência térmica diminui; e ainda que alterações na distribuição de pressão do assento por aumento ou redução de massa têm relação diretamente proporcional com a resistência térmica global do assento, ou seja, se a massa distribuída no assento diminui a resistência térmica global do assento também diminui. A partir dos resultados pode-se concluir que a metodologia utilizada e o manequim térmico desenvolvido permitem caracterizar adequadamente as oportunidades de otimização do banco e de seus sistemas de climatização para o conforto térmico do passageiro. / Vehicles seats acclimatization systems have been lately developed and delivered as microclimate solutions in response to the personal comfort increasing demand. The influence of such systems use on the improvement of passengers satisfaction with the ambient thermal comfort is well recognized, either heating or cooling the seat. In the present work the heat transfer characteristics at a passenger-to-seat interface were studied as well as its relation with other ergonomics aspects, in two different seat configurations, heated and not heated. A thermal manikin of the seated passenger was developed and calibrated thermal and ergonomically to simulate its sensible heat transfer. The heat transfer tests showed that: the local heat flow directly depends on the contact pressure at the passenger seat interface; changes on the heat flow caused by passenger metabolism (MET) modifications are inversely proportional to the seat global thermal resistance, i.e., the higher the MET the lower the thermal resistance; and modifications on the seat pressure distribution due to weight increase or decrease are directly proportional to the seat global thermal resistance, i.e., the lower the weight of the passenger the lower the seat global thermal resistance. Based on the results it may be concluded that the testing methodology and the developed thermal manikin adequately explore the opportunities for optimizing the seat and its systems toward the thermal comfort of the passenger.

Uma das maiores dificuldades que enfrentam os engenheiros responsáveis pelo conforto aeronáutico é proporcionar um bom nível de conforto térmico nas aeronaves. O espaço restrito entre os ocupantes, a pequena distância entre as fileiras de bancos, a grande variação de fontes térmicas e os campos de velocidade e temperatura de ar assimétricos, são alguns dos obstáculos que prejudicam as condições térmicas. Estes fatos têm levado a uma série de iniciativas em centros de pesquisa internacionais e no Brasil para melhor caracterizar a complexidade desse ambiente térmico e melhorar as condições de conforto térmico. No presente trabalho foram realizados estudos que lançam a base para a construção de uma metodologia numérica de análise do ambiente térmico de cabine e de avaliação de condições de conforto térmico em aeronaves. Os estudos compreendem a realização de trabalho experimental e de simulação utilizando CFD em seção de cabine de aeronave. Foram realizadas simulações e medições de temperaturas e velocidades do ar e de temperaturas equivalentes em seção de cabine de 12 passageiros, utilizando manequim térmico digital e experimental com 17 segmentos. As pessoas foram simuladas utilizando manequins com fontes de calor. Resultados do trabalho mostram que o modelo de turbulência k- realizável apresentou os melhores resultados com refinamento de malha que permita atingir y+ próximo de 4. Resultados numéricos e experimentais apresentaram uma boa correlação, tanto nos campos de velocidade e temperatura do ar, quanto nas temperaturas equivalentes. Finalmente, a utilização de manequins térmicos digitas e experimentais mostra ser uma boa ferramenta para análise do ambiente térmico em cabine de aeronave. / One of the most difficult tasks for the aerospace interior comfort engineers is to promote a good thermal environment inside the aircraft cabin. The restricted space, asymmetric air velocity and temperature fields and the great variation of thermal environment conditions are some of the obstacles to get good cabin thermal comfort conditions. These facts led to a significant number of international and national research initiatives to understand this complex thermal environment and improve the cabin thermal comfort. In this work some CFD and experimental studies were carried out to form the basis of a numerical cabin thermal comfort analysis methodology. Experimental and CFD analysis of the equivalent temperatures and air velocities and temperatures in a 12 seat cabin mock-up using an experimental and a digital 17 segments thermal manikin were performed. Occupancy was simulated with heated manikins. The results showed that the realizable k- turbulent model gave good results with a y+ around 4 at the manikin surface. Good correlation between numerical and experimental results led to an increased confidence in the use of experimental and digital thermal manikins to evaluate the aircraft cabin thermal ambient.

Procedure for site discovery, system design, and optimization of power harvesting systems is developed with an emphasis on application to air compressors. Limitations for the usage of infrared pyrometers is evaluated. A system of governing equations for thermoelectric generators is developed. A solution method for solving the system of equations is created in order to predict power output from the device. Payback analysis is proposed for determining economic viability. A genetic algorithm is used to optimize the power harvesting system payback with changing quantities and varieties of thermoelectric generators, as well as the back work put into cooling the thermoelectric generators. Experimental data is taken for laboratory simulation of a power harvesting system under varying resistive load and thermal conductances in order to confirm the working model. A power harvester is designed for and installed on a consumer grade portable air compressor. Experimental data is compared against the model's prediction. As a case study, a system is designed for a water-cooled power harvesting system. Thermoelectric generator power harvesters are found to be economically infeasible for typical installations at current energy prices. Changes in parameters which would increase economic feasibility of the power harvesting system are discussed.

Procedure for site discovery, system design, and optimization of power harvesting systems is developed with an emphasis on application to air compressors. Limitations for the usage of infrared pyrometers is evaluated. A system of governing equations for thermoelectric generators is developed. A solution method for solving the system of equations is created in order to predict power output from the device. Payback analysis is proposed for determining economic viability. A genetic algorithm is used to optimize the power harvesting system payback with changing quantities and varieties of thermoelectric generators, as well as the back work put into cooling the thermoelectric generators.Experimental data is taken for laboratory simulation of a power harvesting system under varying resistive load and thermal conductances in order to confirm the working model. A power harvester is designed for and installed on a consumer grade portable air compressor. Experimental data is compared against the model's prediction. As a case study, a system is designed for a water-cooled power harvesting system.Thermoelectric generator power harvesters are found to be economically infeasible for typical installations at current energy prices. Changes in parameters which would increase economic feasibility of the power harvesting system are discussed.