The first part of my thesis is focused on observation of the leaf damage by invertebrate herbivores during season. I examined how the selected traits affect the palatability of plant species. In the next project, I investigated the effect of herbivory and gaps on seedling establishment. And finally, in the last part, I studied the effect of herbivory of terrestrial gastropods on competitive relationships among selected species.

This diploma's thesis deals with critically endangered species Dianthus arenarius subsp. bohemicus from family Caryophyllaceae. Its distribution range is now limited on its last natural locality in National natural monument Kleneč. As a result of the change in land use (especially the abandonment of grazing), there was a significant reduction in its population size at the end of the 20th century and it was close to extinction. That is why action plan for species conservation was approved, which included number of management interventions at the locality. The most important was the removal of the upper humus horizon, which aims to create free gaps in the sand that allow the emergence and growth of new plants of D. arenarius subsp. bohemicus. The study species is also attacked by herbivores and it was predicted that increasing population might be endangered with increased herbivore population. The aim of this thesis is therefore to describe the population dynamics of the species, to evaluate the effect of the management and to determine how the herbivory affects the population dynamics of the species. The population growth rate decreases over time with vegetation succession. Even eight years after removal the population is still growing. The population growth rate is most affected by change in...

Les forêts dunaires d’Aquitaine de pin maritime (Pinus pinaster) représentent un intérêt économique et écologique important de par leur rôle multifonctionnel (production de bois,protection contre l’érosion, préservation de la biodiversité, tourisme). La régénération naturelle est pratiquée après coupe rase pour les renouveler. Mais, de nombreux échecs de régénération sont observés depuis 20 ans, entrainant des pertes économiques non négligeables.L’objectif de ce travail a été d’identifier les mécanismes écologiques impliqués dans ces échecs récurrents, afin de proposer des recommandations de gestion pour favoriser le renouvellement de ces pinèdes. Pour cela, nous avons étudié quatre étapes-clés du processus de régénération : dispersion des graines, germination, survie, et croissance. Un réseau de sites d’observation le long du cordon dunaire a été utilisé pour quantifier la régénération, en interactions avec des pratiques sylvicoles (coupe rase vs coupe progressive, semis de graines de pin maritime vs absence de semis). Deux sites semi-expérimentaux ont été installé afin d’étudier en détail certains facteurs explicatifs potentiellement importants dans notre contexte(climat, interactions plante-plante, herbivorie). Nos résultats confirment que la régénération naturelle est un processus complexe, influencé par de nombreux facteurs environnementaux et d’autres liés à la gestion, pouvant être eux mêmes en interaction. La quantité de graines atteignant le sol ne semble pas être limitante. La germination des graines est fortement liée à l’humidité du sol, et est influencée par l’hétérogénéité de la microtopographie. La sécheresse estivale, cause majeure de mortalité des plantules, peut-être modulée par le maintien d’arbres semenciers. Les interactions biotiques directes et indirectes avec la végétation de sous-bois impactent fortement la survie des plantules, mais varient grandement en direction et en intensité selon les saisons et les années.Bien que nos résultats permettent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans le cycle de régénération du pin maritime, il apparaît difficile de mettre en avant un seul facteur expliquant les échecs de régénération sur certains secteurs. Cependant, dans l’ensemble, le maintien d’arbres semenciers pendant quelques années permet d’obtenir une régénération réussie sur la globalité des forêts dunaires, grâce à l’apport pluriannuel de graines mais aussi à travers les modifications du microclimat sous leur canopée. Contrôler la végétation spontanée afin de réduire la compétition avec les plantules de pin, et augmenter les plans de chasse afin de réduire la pression des herbivores sur les plantules, doit aussi être envisagé dans les secteurs où les échecs de régénération sont fréquents. / In south-western France, the coastal fringe with maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) forest has a multifunctional role, with erosion protection, preservation of biodiversity, tourism, and wood production as main objectives. Natural regeneration is used to renew these stands after clear-cutting. However, in recent years, regeneration failures have increased in some areas,leading to significant economic losses.The objective of this work was to identify the ecological mechanisms involved in these recurrent failures, in order to propose adapted forestry management practices to ensure forest regeneration. To do this, we studied four stages of the regeneration process: seed dispersal, germination, survival, and growth. A monitoring network of five sites along the Aquitaine Coast was also used to quantify the regeneration and characterize local differences in terms of forest management practices (clear-cut vs seed-tree regeneration,and sowing vs no sowing). Two experimental sites were set up to study in detail some factors potentially important in our context (climate, plant-plant interactions, herbivory).Our results confirm that natural regeneration is a complex process, influenced by many –often interacting – environmental and management factors. The quantity of seeds reaching the forest soil does not seem to be limiting. Seed germination is strongly related to soil moisture, and is influenced by the heterogeneity of the micro topography. Summer drought, the main cause of seedling mortality, may be mitigated by remaining seed trees on the stand.Direct and indirect biotic interactions with understorey vegetation have a strong impact on seedling survival, but vary greatly both in direction and intensity, depending on the seasonand the year.Even though our results provide a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in there generation cycle of maritime pine, it is difficult to put forward a single factor explaining local regeneration failures. However, overall, maintaining seed trees for a few years allows obtaining a successful regeneration in the entire coastal forest, thanks to the multi-yearsupply of seeds but also through the modifications of the microclimate under their canopy. Controlling understorey vegetation to reduce competition with pine seedlings and increasing hunting plans to reduce herbivory pressure on seedlings should also be considered in areas where regeneration failures are common.

Understanding relationships between large herbivores and plant species diversity in dynamic riparian zones, and more specifically sodic zones, is critical to biodiversity conservation. Sodic patches form an integral part of savanna ecosystems because of the ecosystem services and functions they provide, i.e. accumulation of nutrients, provision of open spaces for predator vigilance and formation of wet season wallowing points. Furthermore, these key resource areas sustain body condition for dry season survival and support reproduction through nutritional benefits, making them „nutrient hotspots.‟ The Nkuhlu research exclosures in the Kruger National Park (KNP) provide a unique opportunity to investigate spatial and temporal heterogeneity patterns within riparian zones, and how these patterns are affected by fire and herbivory. A monitoring project was initiated to answer questions pertaining to the dynamics of the herbaceous layer and was aimed at determining (a) whether there exists meaningful variance in herbaceous plant species richness and diversity across different treatments of fire and herbivory in the ecologically sensitive sodic zone, (b) if temporal shifts in plant species composition and diversity occurs, (c) whether an increase in herbaceous biomass, an artifact of herbivory and fire exclusion, suppresses herbaceous plant species diversity and richness, and (d) whether there exists a significant relationship between herbaceous biomass and species richness/diversity. The Nkuhlu exclosures consist of three herbivory treatments, each divided into a fire and no-fire treatment, hence six treatment combinations overall. Herbivory treatments consisted of, (1) a partially fenced area designed to specifically exclude elephants (giraffes are also excluded due to body size), (2) an open, unfenced area and (3) a fully fenced area, designed to exclude all herbivores larger than a hare. Herbaceous vegetation was sampled in two 1 m2 circular sub-plots in the eastern and western corners of each of the 82 fixed plots. Biomass of each plot was estimated with a Disc Pasture Meter (DPM) by sampling ten points diagonally within each plot. DPM-readings were converted to kg/ha according to latest conversions for the Lowveld Savanna. Species richness and biomass showed significant variance across treatments for the 2010 dataset, whereas no significant variation in herbaceous species diversity was perceived. Combined treatment of fire absence and herbivore presence contributed to higher forb species richness in the sodic zone. Biomass was significantly higher in fully fenced areas where herbivores were excluded, opposed to the open and partially fenced areas. Although no significant variation was recorded for diversity across treatments, lowest diversity was recorded in the absence of all herbivores, especially in combination with fire treatment. After nine years of herbivory exclusion, diversity of herbaceous species varied significantly. Herbaceous species composition changed over time in areas exposed to herbivory, while composition of fully fenced treatments did not reveal change. A hump-shaped relationship exists between herbaceous species richness/diversity and field biomass, at least for areas with biomass levels not exceeding 2500 kg/ha. Herbivores are therefore considered essential in sustaining herbaceous plant species richness and system heterogeneity in the sodic zone, since herbaceous species richness/diversity was higher in herbivore presence and herbaceous species composition changed over time in areas exposed to herbivory. Although statistically non-significant, fire seems to suppress species richness. Conservation implications: This study could be used as framework to advance and develop sciencebased management strategies for, at least, the sodic zones of the KNP. Research in these exclosures contributes to our understanding of these landscapes and benefit ecosystem conservation planning. It also provides valuable long-term data for key ecological processes. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Understanding relationships between large herbivores and plant species diversity in dynamic riparian zones, and more specifically sodic zones, is critical to biodiversity conservation. Sodic patches form an integral part of savanna ecosystems because of the ecosystem services and functions they provide, i.e. accumulation of nutrients, provision of open spaces for predator vigilance and formation of wet season wallowing points. Furthermore, these key resource areas sustain body condition for dry season survival and support reproduction through nutritional benefits, making them „nutrient hotspots.‟ The Nkuhlu research exclosures in the Kruger National Park (KNP) provide a unique opportunity to investigate spatial and temporal heterogeneity patterns within riparian zones, and how these patterns are affected by fire and herbivory. A monitoring project was initiated to answer questions pertaining to the dynamics of the herbaceous layer and was aimed at determining (a) whether there exists meaningful variance in herbaceous plant species richness and diversity across different treatments of fire and herbivory in the ecologically sensitive sodic zone, (b) if temporal shifts in plant species composition and diversity occurs, (c) whether an increase in herbaceous biomass, an artifact of herbivory and fire exclusion, suppresses herbaceous plant species diversity and richness, and (d) whether there exists a significant relationship between herbaceous biomass and species richness/diversity. The Nkuhlu exclosures consist of three herbivory treatments, each divided into a fire and no-fire treatment, hence six treatment combinations overall. Herbivory treatments consisted of, (1) a partially fenced area designed to specifically exclude elephants (giraffes are also excluded due to body size), (2) an open, unfenced area and (3) a fully fenced area, designed to exclude all herbivores larger than a hare. Herbaceous vegetation was sampled in two 1 m2 circular sub-plots in the eastern and western corners of each of the 82 fixed plots. Biomass of each plot was estimated with a Disc Pasture Meter (DPM) by sampling ten points diagonally within each plot. DPM-readings were converted to kg/ha according to latest conversions for the Lowveld Savanna. Species richness and biomass showed significant variance across treatments for the 2010 dataset, whereas no significant variation in herbaceous species diversity was perceived. Combined treatment of fire absence and herbivore presence contributed to higher forb species richness in the sodic zone. Biomass was significantly higher in fully fenced areas where herbivores were excluded, opposed to the open and partially fenced areas. Although no significant variation was recorded for diversity across treatments, lowest diversity was recorded in the absence of all herbivores, especially in combination with fire treatment. After nine years of herbivory exclusion, diversity of herbaceous species varied significantly. Herbaceous species composition changed over time in areas exposed to herbivory, while composition of fully fenced treatments did not reveal change. A hump-shaped relationship exists between herbaceous species richness/diversity and field biomass, at least for areas with biomass levels not exceeding 2500 kg/ha. Herbivores are therefore considered essential in sustaining herbaceous plant species richness and system heterogeneity in the sodic zone, since herbaceous species richness/diversity was higher in herbivore presence and herbaceous species composition changed over time in areas exposed to herbivory. Although statistically non-significant, fire seems to suppress species richness. Conservation implications: This study could be used as framework to advance and develop sciencebased management strategies for, at least, the sodic zones of the KNP. Research in these exclosures contributes to our understanding of these landscapes and benefit ecosystem conservation planning. It also provides valuable long-term data for key ecological processes. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif principal de comprendre la dynamique de l’espèce fondatrice de l’écosystème de la région de Bled Talah, ainsi que les mécanismes susceptibles de mieux comprendre ses interactions avec la végétation compagne. Des mesures dendrométriques accomplies par des essais de détermination d’âge, ont fait ressortir que le peuplement de la forêt du Bou Hedma semble naturellement suivre plutôt une certaine dynamique régressive. C’est ainsi que nos résultats démontrent plutôt la dominance des individus de grandes circonférences (des individus âgés). Les obstacles à la faible régénération naturelle de ce taxon sont, essentiellement, l’infestation des graines par les bruches, la possibilité d’un éventuel effet autoallélopathique et la dominance des interactions négatives (compétition) entre la végétation du Parc National du Bou Hedma et les jeunes plants d’Acacia. Concernant, les interactions biotiques, nos résultats ont permis d’enrichir les débats actuels sur l’importance et la direction des interactions le long des gradients de stress et de perturbation. Une dominance des interactions négatives (compétition), le long des deux gradients a été démontrée, avec une chute de l’importance de la compétition en présence d’herbivorie. Les mesures environnementales et biologiques ont permis de conclure, qu’Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana, a un effet globalement bénéfique pour le sol, ainsi que pour la végétation naturelle environnante. Compte tenu du rôle clef de cette espèce sous les conditions contraignantes du bioclimat aride, la nécessité de minimiser le risque de la faible régénération naturelle de ce taxon est prioritaire dans les grands programmes de reboisement et de restauration des écosystèmes arides. / The main aim of this work were to understand the dynamics of the founding species of the ecosystem of the region of Bled Talah, as well as the mechanisms to understand better its interactions with the vegetation partner. Dendrometric parameters were measured for each tree then determination of age were estimated. This work improves general understanding of the factors explaining the structure of the Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana. These species naturally seems to follow rather a certain regressive dynamics. The possible reasons for regeneration failure natural regeneration of Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana were especially the high infestation of seeds by Bruchidius raddianae, the autoallelopathic effetcs and the dominance of the negative interactions (competition) between the vegetation of the National park of Bou Hedma and the young plantations of Acacia tree. The importance and direction of biotic interactions along environmental gradients is still a major debate in plant ecology. Through the study of biotic interactions, our results suggests the dominance of competition between nurses and target species used in this work.The results of this study confirmed the positive effect of Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana on the understorey vegetation composition and diversity in arid ecosystems. Once, established in the dry area, this species ameliorates microclimate including soil conditions that may be suitable to the regeneration and the growth of other species. In this way, this species will provide beneficial effects to the generating seedlings in the vicinity and therfore will help rehabilitating degraded areas.

Ce mémoire visait à déterminer les pratiques et les facteurs favorables au succès des réintroductions du carex faux-lupulina (Carex lupuliformis), une espèce vivace menacée poussant dans divers types de milieux humides ouverts du nord-est de l’Amérique du Nord. Pour répondre à cet objectif, des expériences de germination en serres ont été réalisées, et la survie, la vigueur et le microhabitat de chaque plant de carex faux-lupulina connu au Québec (sauvage ou réintroduit) ont été mesurés. Nos résultats montrent que le carex faux-lupulina est une espèce facile à propager ex situ. Une stratification froide (4°C) des semences dans du sable humide pendant un mois induit des taux de germination élevés. Nos résultats montrent également que des pucerons exotiques, ainsi qu’une transplantation dans des habitats inadaptés aux besoins de l’espèce en termes d’humidité du sol et de lumière disponible, ont causé la mort prématurée d’un grand nombre de transplants. Notre programme de réintroduction a permis d’établir une nouvelle population de l’espèce au Québec, et a potentiellement permis de sextupler la taille des populations de la province. Globalement, cette étude a permis de mieux comprendre l’écologie du carex faux-lupulina, et ainsi de faciliter la restauration de ses populations. / This study aimed to determine the practices and factors influencing the success of the reintroductions of false hop sedge, an endangered perennial species growing in North American open wetlands. To do so, germination experiments were performed, and the survival, vigour and microhabitat of each false hop sedge plant known in Québec (wild or reintroduced) were measured. Our results show that false hop sedge is easy to propagate ex situ. A cold stratification (4°C) of seeds in wet sand for one month induced higher germination rates. Our results also show that exotic aphids, as well as a transplantation in habitats that did not meet the false hop sedge requirements in terms of soil moisture and available light, caused the premature death of many transplants. Our reintroduction program allowed the establishment of at least one new false hop sedge population in Québec, and potentially contributed to sextupling the size of the provincial population. Overall, this study allowed us to better understand the ecology of false hop sedge, and thus facilitate the restoration of its populations.

This study examines the role of deffensive host-plant traits in structuring the community of leaf-chewing insects living on willows. Host-plant phylogeny was reconstructed and leaf morphology and content of three different groups of secondary metabolites were measured. Relationships between defensive leaf traits were examined and their influence on insect community structure was analyzed.

Plants and herbivores influence each other for more than million years. Most studies are focused on interspecific variability in herbivory intensity, but little i known about intraspecific variability and what controls it. Environmental conditions can determine intraspecific variation. Goal of this thesis is to examine importance of environmental conditions and interspecific variation for invertebrate herbivory preferences. Plant material that was used in experiments comes from several species from subfamily Carduoideae. Preferences of invertebrate herbivores are tested in food-choice experiments. Plastic arenas are made for these experiments, in which leaves are put in small tubes that are placed along the periphery. After herbivores are placed in to arena, arena is covered by net to ensure that herbivores can't escape. Plant material for experiments was grown in experimental garden and was also brought from field. Plants from garden differ in productivity of soil and water regime. In experiments with field material, plant leaves were collected from eight localities, four fields and four grasslands. Leaves were scanted before and after each experiment. Scans were processed and the amount of consumed leaf tissue was determined. For plant characteristics I measured plant functional traits, specific...

Les interactions « lichen-lichénophage » sont médiées par la présence de métabolites au sein des lichens qui peuvent influer sur les préférences alimentaires des lichénophages. Dans le contexte environnemental du Subantarctique, à faible biodiversité animale et « végétale », une étonnante richesse lichénique a contribué au succès de l’unique Gastéropode terrestre endémique, Notodiscus hookeri. Pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes en jeu, nous avons analysé les préférences alimentaires de cet escargot lichénophage et tenté de cibler les traits-clés des lichens qui modulent l’interaction trophique. À partir d’observations et de prélèvements réalisés sur l’île de la Possession (Archipel Crozet, Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises), deux étapes décisives de l’interaction ont été étudiées : (i) le comportement alimentaire de l’escargot en situation de choix nutritionnel, (ii) sa réponse gustative face à des métabolites en situation de non choix. Le broutage préférentiel de certaines parties de lichen a été confronté à l’analyse de la combinaison entre la teneur des métabolites secondaires et celle des métabolites primaires. La localisation des métabolites au sein du thalle de trois espèces lichéniques fréquentes sur l’île et consommées par l’escargot (Argopsis friesiana, Pseudocyphellaria crocata et Usnea taylorii) a été effectuée par l’intermédiaire de techniques chromatographiques et spectrométriques (LC-DAD-MS, GC-MS, microdissection couplée à la LC-DAD-MS, DART-MS) ainsi que par des techniques d’imagerie couplées à la spectrométrie de masse ((MA)LDI-MS). N. hookeri se révèle être une espèce généraliste et opportuniste qui se nourrit de la majorité des lichens auxquels il est confronté. Cependant, il opère des choix en se nourrissant des parties ayant une valeur nutritive élevée et ce, en dépit de la présence de métabolites secondaires potentiellement répulsifs. Plusieurs mécanismes permettant à l’escargot de contrer la toxicité de certains métabolites ont également été décrits dans ce travail. Les choix alimentaires de N. hookeri s’avèrent par conséquent répondre à un compromis entre le bénéfice d’absorption de métabolites appétents à forte valeur nutritive et le coût physiologique (détoxication, clivage, excrétion) engendré par l’ingestion de métabolites répulsifs. En conclusion, trois paramètres-clés au moins seraient à prendre en compte lors des futures études d’interactions entre lichens et lichénophages : il s’agit de la nature et de la teneur des métabolites secondaires, de la teneur en azote ainsi que de la quantité de sucres et de polyols. Les techniques d’imagerie ont fourni une voie nouvelle et prometteuse pour cibler les dégâts opérés par un phytophage. En effet, cette approche permet de mieux apprécier la distribution hétérogène au sein du thalle entre les métabolites. Pour cet escargot terrestre, les ratios de composés « appétents/inappétents » semblent jouer un rôle majeur dans la sélection de nourriture. / Lichen-lichenivore interactions are mediated by the presence of metabolites in lichens, which may impact lichenivore food preferences. In the environmental context of the Subantarctic, with a low animal and “plant” biodiversity, the surprising lichen flora contributed to the success of a the only endemic subantarctic land Gastropod, Notodiscus hookeri. To better understand the snail-lichen interactions, we analyzed the food preferences of this lichenivore snail and tried to pinpoint key lichen traits modulating the trophic interaction. From observations and samplings realized on Possession Island (Crozet Archipelago, Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises), two decisive stages of the interaction were studied: (i) the snail feeding behavior in situation of nutritional choice, (ii) its gustatory response when facing isolated metabolites in no-choice situations. Preferential grazing of some lichen parts was linked to both secondary and primary metabolites concentrations. Intrathalline localization of metabolites was performed in three lichen species consumed by the snail and widespread on Possession Island (Argopsis friesiana, Pseudocyphellaria crocata and Usnea taylorii), using chromatographic and spectrometric techniques (LC-DAD-MS, GC-MS, microdissection coupled to LC-DAD-MS, DART-MS) and imaging mass spectrometry ((MA)LDI-MS). N. hookeri appears to be a generalist and opportunistic gastropod, feeding on most lichen species encountered. However, it is able to discriminate between lichen parts, preferentially grazing on parts with the highest nutrient value, in spite of the presence of potential deterrent secondary metabolites. We described several mechanisms helping snails to overcome the toxicity of some lichen metabolites. Snail feeding choices result in trade-off between benefits of absorbing appetent metabolites of high nutritive value and the cost of physiological processes (detoxification, cleavage and excretion) caused by the ingestion of deterrent metabolites. To conclude, three main key parameters might be relevant in future to study the interactions between lichens and lichenivores. They correspond to the nature, the histolocalisation and the content of secondary metabolites balanced by the amount of nitrogen along with sugars and polyols. Imaging techniques have provided a new and promising way to visualize the heterogeneous distribution within the thallus between these metabolites. The ratios of appetent/non appetent compounds are likely to play a major role in food selection by this land snail.