The use of high compressive strengths in prestressed bridge girders can lower costs by allowing for longer spans, increased girder spacing, and smaller cross-sections. If high strength lightweight concrete (HSLWC) is used, these advantages are further enhanced due to the corresponding reduction in self-weight. Additional benefits can then be realized in the form of more traffic lanes, increased load capacity, smaller substructures, reduced crane capacity requirements, and lower shipping costs. Despite the possible economic savings, HSLWC has been used infrequently in prestressed bridge girder applications across the nation. While recent research has been performed to extend the applicability of current bridge design specifications to normal weight concretes with strengths as high as 18 ksi, little has been done by comparison with regards to HSLWC. The purpose of the research in this report was to assess whether current bridge design specifications for transfer length, development length, prestress loss, camber, and flexural capacity are satisfactory for use with fully-bonded, pretensioned flexural members consisting of HSLWC and to make recommendations for improvements where necessary. Twelve high strength pretensioned beams of variable unit weight (eight lightweight beams and four normal weight beams) and strand size (eight beams with 0.5-in. strand and four beams with 0.6-in. strand) were cast at the Thomas M. Murray Structural Engineering Laboratory at Virginia Tech. These beams were allowed to sit for a period of several months after fabrication while measurements were taken regarding transfer length, prestress loss, and camber. After this period, the beams were load tested to collect development length data, flexural data, and further data related to prestress loss. In addition to the laboratory cast beams, prestress loss and camber data from six full-size bridge beams (five lightweight beams and one normal weight beam) cast as part of a separate project at Virginia Tech was examined. Analysis of the results for all beams shows that with a few caveats, the current AASHTO LRFD Specifications and other design methods examined regarding the topics under consideration are satisfactory for use in the design of HSLWC pretensioned bridge girders with properties similar to those of the beams studied. / Ph. D.

The effect of three heat treatments on plane-strain fracture toughness (K _Ic), fatigue crack growth rate (da/dN), and tensile behavior of a commercial powder metal alloy, CPM 10V, was investigated. Fracture toughness was increased by increasing the tempering temperatures and decreased by increasing the austenitizing temperature. These changes were related to changes in yield strength and the resulting crack tip plastic zone sizes. Fracture toughness resulting from any of the three heat treatments was inversely related to the hardness. Fatigue crack growth followed the Paris Law for some portion of the curve and crack growth exponents, n, were virtually unchanged by the heat treatment. The linear portion of the growth curve was shifted to higher stress intensity ranges for heat treatments yielding higher fracture toughness. Fatigue crack growth behavior in the high growth region was determined mainly by the fracture toughness of the specific heat treatment. / M.S.

Lightweighting demands have been achieved by third generation (3G) Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSSs) by a means of increased strength. The challenge faced in doing so, however, is in ensuring that ductility and crashworthiness is efficiently retained. Key methods in which automotive research has been invested to achieve this strength-ductility balance is by microalloying to promote grain refinement, the introduction of precipitates, and the effective use of plasticity enhancing mechanisms. Specifically, the ability to tailor the stability of retained austenite during deformation has been crucial in manipulating the strength-to-ductility ratio of 3G AHSSs using the Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) effect. On the other hand, dual phase (DP) (i.e: non-TRIP-assisted steels) continue to be most significantly manufactured due to their robust thermomechanical processing but are also compromised by their poor damage tolerance. Hence, considerable reports are available regarding the damage tolerance of DP steels, but the ability for the volume expansion associated with the austenite-to-martensite transformation to suppress damage evolution and enhance a steel’s local formability has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Nonetheless, the damage processes that lead to fracture in 3G AHSSs are complex. A full understanding of the underlying phenomena requires a careful assessment of the strain partitioning amongst phases, how the microstructure evolves with strain and how damage, in the form of voids and micro-cracks, nucleates and grows. This can only be accomplished by applying a range of methodologies, including microscopic Digital Image Correlation (µDIC), X-ray Computed Microtomography (µXCT), Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), all of which can be tracked as deformation proceeds. This PhD thesis uses a novel post µDIC data processing technique to prove that a reduction in strain gradient, linked to the evolution Geometrically Necessary Dislocations (GNDs), at dissimilar phase interfaces is attainable with vanadium-microalloying and with use of the TRIP effect. A local strain gradient post µDIC data processing technique was developed and first applied on 3G DP steels to show that the microcompatibility between ferrite and martensite directly at the interface is considerably improved with vanadium-microalloying. This in turn microscopically explains this DP steel’s increased local formability/damage tolerance with vanadium micro-additions. Moreover, when applying this novel µDIC technique on two other 3G experimental steels of interest, an ultrahigh strength Quench & Partition (Q&P) steel and a continuous galvanizing line (CGL)-compatible Medium-Mn (med-Mn) steel, an even slower evolution of microstrain gradients at dissimilar phase interfaces was observed. This indicates that, although vanadium-microalloying can improve the damage tolerance of a DP steel, its ability to achieve the ultrahigh strengths is a direct result of the severe inhibition of dislocation motion at dissimilar phase boundaries. Eventually, at high strains, these local strain gradients cannot be maintained and results in premature damage nucleation. By comparison, at such high strains, distinct evidence of damage nucleation was not apparent in the 3G TRIP-assisted steels which is the result of a slow strain gradient evolution delayed by the effective use of TRIP. This finding triggered a further investigation into isolating the impact the rate of TRIP exhaustion has on damage development. By intercritically annealing this prototype med-Mn steel (0.15C-5.8Mn-1.8Al-0.71Si) with a martensitic starting microstructure, within a narrow temperature interval (from 665 to 710°C), it was possible to make significant changes in the steel’s rate of TRIP exhaustion without making considerable changes to its physical microstructure. This steel exhibits the largest true strain at fracture (ɛf = 0.61), meets U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) mechanical targets (28,809 MPa%), and shows sustained monotonic work hardening when intercritically annealed at an intermediate IA temperature of 685°C for 120s. In addition, this IA condition showed optimal damage tolerance properties as an abundance of voids nucleated during its tensile deformation, but their growth was suppressed by prolonging TRIP over a large strain range. There is reason to believe that the heterogeneous distribution of austenite and Mn throughout this 685°C IA condition compared to the other two enabled its suppressed TRIP kinetics and in turn improved damage tolerance. The impact that changes in stress-state, from a stress triaxiality of 0.33-0.89, has on microstrain partitioning, TRIP kinetics and damage evolution was tested on this med-Mn at its 685°C IA condition. With the machining of notches on tensile specimens, it was seen that a high stress triaxiality (0.74-0.89) accelerated the rate of TRIP, whereas the introduction of shear, through a misaligned notched specimen design, delayed TRIP kinetics. The change in mean stress imposed by the notches was deemed to have played an active role in TRIP exhaustion during the material’s tensile deformation. A unique electropolishing micro-speckle patterning technique was applied to show that the amount of strain that can be accommodated by the steel’s the polygonal ferrite-tempered martensitic regions are considerably impacted by external modifications in stress-state. While damages studies using different such notched tensile geometries revealed that once a critical void size is reached in this med-Mn steel, coalescence proceeds at an increasing, exponential rate up to fracture. It continues to remain a challenge to quantify the effects microstrain partitioning, TRIP kinetics and damage evolution separately, opening new avenues for future experimental and modeling investigations. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy / A lot of research up to now has been invested in the automotive industry to create steels that are lightweight, strong and show improved crashworthiness. The means by which this has been achieved is with the use of innovative processing routes to manufacture and implement Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSSs) in a vehicle’s body-in-white. Nonetheless, the constant global pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has eventually driven research to a third-generation class of ultrahigh strength, lightweight AHSSs. These steels retain the weight savings of their second-generation counterparts but are more cost-effective to manufacture and can be adapted to current industrial line capabilities. Considerable work has been done to enable the manufacturing of 3G steels, yet the steel characteristics which underpin fracture, thereby affecting the crashworthiness of these steels, continues to be weakly understood. As such, at a microscopic scale, this thesis uses three different promising 3G AHSSs candidates to evaluate the impact their unique steel characteristics has on the ability to resist damage evolution and fracture.

Prestressed concrete structural members camber upwards or downwards depending upon the location of application of prestress force. Identical members do not camber equally due to variability of the factors influencing it. Differential camber in the beams, if significant, results in excessively tall haunches or girder top flange extending into the bottom of the slab. For adjacent members like deck bulb-tees and box girders that are to be transversely post-tensioned the differential camber causes problems during the fit up process. This variation is undesirable and hinders the smooth progress of construction work if not properly accounted for at the design stage. Various factors influence camber and camber growth in prestressed members. Some of the factors are concrete strength and modulus, concrete creep and shrinkage properties, curing conditions, maturity of concrete at release of prestress force, initial strand stress, climatic conditions in storage and length of time in storage. Combinations of these variables result in variation of camber of otherwise similar beams at the time they are erected. One way to increase the precision of camber estimation is to use Monte Carlo simulation based upon the randomized parameters affecting the camber and camber growth. In this method, the parameters, in the form of a probability distribution function, are combined and passed through a deterministic model resulting in camber and camber growth prediction with narrowed probability bounds as compared to single definite value given by most contemporary methods. This outcome gives the expected range of cambers for a given girder design. After determining the expected range of camber, the ultimate goal is to provide guidelines for using unbonded monostrands for camber adjustment. / Master of Science

Efforts to reduce vehicle weight and improve crash performance have resulted in increased application of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) and a recent focus on the weldability of these alloys. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the primary sheet metal welding process in the manufacture of automotive assemblies. Integration of AHSS into the automotive architecture has brought renewed challenges for achieving acceptable welds. The varying alloying content and processing techniques has further complicated this initiative. The current study examines resistance spot welding of high strength and advance high strength steels including high strength low alloy (HSLA), dual phase (DP) and a ferritic-bainitic steel (590R). The mechanical properties and microstructure of these RSW welded steel alloys are detailed. Furthermore a relationship between chemistries and hardness is produced. The effect of strain rate on the joint strength and failure mode is also an important consideration in the design of welded structures. Current literature, however, does not explain the effects of weld microstructure and there are no comprehensive comparisons of steels. This work details the relationship between the joint microstructure and impact performance of spot welded AHSS. Quasi-static and impact tests were conducted using a universal tensile tester and an instrumented drop tower, respectively. Results for elongation, failure load and energy absorption for each material are presented. Failure modes are detailed by observing weld fracture surfaces. In addition, cross-sections of partially fractured weldments were examined to detail fracture paths during static loading. Correlations between the fracture path and mechanical properties are developed using observed microstructures in the fusion zone and heat-affected-zone. Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) has proven to be a potential candidate for spot welding AHSS. A comparative study of RSW and FSSW on spot welding AHSS has also been completed. The objective of this work is to compare the microstructure and mechanical properties of Zn-coated DP600 AHSS (1.2mm thick) spot welds conducted using both processes. This was accomplished by examining the metallurgical cross-sections and local hardnesses of various spot weld regions. High speed data acquisition was also used to monitor process parameters and attain energy outputs for each process.

Efforts to reduce vehicle weight and improve crash performance have resulted in increased application of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) and a recent focus on the weldability of these alloys. Resistance spot welding (RSW) is the primary sheet metal welding process in the manufacture of automotive assemblies. Integration of AHSS into the automotive architecture has brought renewed challenges for achieving acceptable welds. The varying alloying content and processing techniques has further complicated this initiative. The current study examines resistance spot welding of high strength and advance high strength steels including high strength low alloy (HSLA), dual phase (DP) and a ferritic-bainitic steel (590R). The mechanical properties and microstructure of these RSW welded steel alloys are detailed. Furthermore a relationship between chemistries and hardness is produced. The effect of strain rate on the joint strength and failure mode is also an important consideration in the design of welded structures. Current literature, however, does not explain the effects of weld microstructure and there are no comprehensive comparisons of steels. This work details the relationship between the joint microstructure and impact performance of spot welded AHSS. Quasi-static and impact tests were conducted using a universal tensile tester and an instrumented drop tower, respectively. Results for elongation, failure load and energy absorption for each material are presented. Failure modes are detailed by observing weld fracture surfaces. In addition, cross-sections of partially fractured weldments were examined to detail fracture paths during static loading. Correlations between the fracture path and mechanical properties are developed using observed microstructures in the fusion zone and heat-affected-zone. Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) has proven to be a potential candidate for spot welding AHSS. A comparative study of RSW and FSSW on spot welding AHSS has also been completed. The objective of this work is to compare the microstructure and mechanical properties of Zn-coated DP600 AHSS (1.2mm thick) spot welds conducted using both processes. This was accomplished by examining the metallurgical cross-sections and local hardnesses of various spot weld regions. High speed data acquisition was also used to monitor process parameters and attain energy outputs for each process.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Gerson Luiz Mantovani / Coorientador: Prof. Dr. Renato Altobelli Antunes / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanociências e Materiais Avançados, Santo André, 2018. / Recentemente, a indústria automotiva tem acelerado os esforços para melhorar a economia de combustível dos automóveis. Os aços de alta resistência possibilitam a redução de peso, garantindo a segurança e desempenho. A Microestrutura, propriedades mecânicas e comportamento de corrosão de juntas soldadas de dois aços de alta resistência (LNE500 e AHSS900) foram estudados. Os aportes térmicos utilizados foram de 0,72, 0,70, 0,47 e 0,31 kJ/mm utilizando soldagem a arco elétrico. A microestrutura da junta soldada foi analisada por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microscopia óptica e difração de raios X. Os resultados confirmam a influência do aporte térmico na microestrutura, fases cristalinas, tamanho de grão, precipitados e suas distribuições. O perfil de dureza (Vickers) revelou uma região de amolecimento localizado na zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC) com grãos finos para as juntas soldadas do metal de base AHSS900. Os resultados do teste de tração revelaram uma variação significativa do escoamento e da resistência à tração entre o metal de base e as amostras soldadas, com a última apresentando ductilidade e resistência reduzidas. O comportamento de corrosão foi estudado utilizando impedância eletroquímica, polarização potenciodinâmica e técnica de varredura por eletrodo vibracional (SVET). A combinação dessas técnicas indicou onde e como a corrosão aconteceu. ZAC e metal de base atuaram como ânodo e o cordão de solda atuou como cátodo. SVET revelou que a corrosão iniciou no cordão de solda e se espalhou pela superfície da junta soldada. A grande quantidade de locais ativos (óxidos) e o alto teor de Si no cordão de solda podem ter sido responsáveis pelo início da corrosão nessa região. As imagens de microscopia confocal mostraram que a ZAC e o metal de base corroeram mais rápido do que o cordão de solda. / Recently, automotive producers have been accelerating efforts to significantly improve vehicle fuel economy. High-strength steels have been proven to achieve weight reduction while meeting vehicle safety and performance requirements. The microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behaviour of gas metal arc welded joints of two high strength steels (LNE500 and AHSS900) have been studied. The welded joints were obtained using heat input of 0.72, 0.70, 0.47 and 0.31 kJ/mm. The microstructure was investigated by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results confirm the influence of heat input on the microstructure, crystalline phases, grain size, precipitates size and distribution. Vickers microhardness test revealed a softening region in the fine-grained heat affected zone (FGHAZ) for the AHSS900 welded joints. The tensile test results revealed a significant variation in the magnitude of yield and tensile strength between the base metal and welded samples, with the latter exhibiting reduced ductility and strength. Corrosion behaviour was studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, potentiodynamic polarisation and scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET). The combination of these techniques indicated that HAZ and BM acted as the anode and weld metal (WM) acted as the cathode of the galvanic couple. SVET showed that corrosion started in the WM and, then, it spread to the whole joint. The high amount of active sites (oxide inclusions) and the high Si content in the WM may be responsible for corrosion initiation. HAZ/BM corroded faster than WM, producing a depth difference, which was detected by confocal laser scanning microscope.

In an effort to increase the fuel efficiency of cars more widespread use of higher strength steels is seen for their high strength-to-weight ratio. Thesesteels are more limited in their formability and tendency to harden than conventional steels, complicating manufacturing. This thesis summarizes the available research on resistance projection nut welding to higher strength steels and investigates the accuracy of the simulation program SORPAS when simulating projection nut welds to AlSi-coated Boron steel. It was found that the greatest difficulties in welding coated ultra high strength steels were the metallurgical effects of both the high alloying content of the steel and the coatings interacting with the weld when melting. Although SORPAS was an intuitive program to use for resistance welding and had a wide library of materials available, it was not found to be able to predict the resistance characteristics or results of projection nut welds to coated Boron steel without significant changes to default material parameters. The biggest issue was the delaying effect the coating layer had on the peak resistance, something not observed experimentally. Better results are suggested to be possible after experimentally ensuring the properties of the materials used and importing those values into SORPAS. / I ett försök att öka bilars bränsleeffektivitet används i allt större utsträckning stål med högre hållfasthet på grund av deras goda förhållande mellan styrka och vikt. Dessa stål är mer begränsade i sin formbarhet och tendens att härda än konventionella stål, vilket försvårar tillverkning. Denna uppsats sammanfattar den tillgängliga forskningen om motståndssvetsning med projektionsmutter i höghållfasta stål och undersöker noggrannheten hos simuleringsprogrammet SORPAS vid simulering av projektionsmuttersvetsar i AlSi-belagt borstål. Det konstaterades att de största svårigheterna vid svetsning av belagda ultrahöghållfasta stål var de metallurgiska effekterna av både stålets höga legeringsinnehåll och beläggningarnas interaktion med svetsen vid smältning. Trots att SORPAS var ett intuitivt program att använda för motståndssvetsning och hade ett brett bibliotek av tillgängliga material kunde det inte förutsäga motståndsegenskaperna eller resultaten av projektionsmuttersvetsar mot belagt borstål utan betydande förändringar av standardmaterialparametrarna. Det största problemet var den fördröjande effekt som beläggningsskiktet hade på maximala resistansen, något som inte observerades experimentellt. Bättre överenstämmelse föreslås vara möjlig efter att experimentellt säkerställa egenskaperna hos de material som används och importera dessa värden till SORPAS.

Recently, Zn-XAl-YMg coatings have emerged as lighter-weight substitutes for traditional Zn-based coatings for the corrosion protection of steels; however, little is currently known concerning the interactions between the oxides present on advanced high strength steel (AHSS) surfaces and the Zn-Al-Mg bath. In the current contri- bution, the selective oxidation and reactive wetting of a series of C-Mn AHSS were determined with the objective of providing a quantitative description of this pro- cess. The process atmosphere pO2 was varied using dew points of −50◦C, −30◦C and −5◦C. The surface oxide chemistry and morphology were analysed by means of SEM and XPS techniques. Reactive wetting of the selectively oxidized surfaces using a Zn-1.6 wt.% Al-1.6 wt.% Mg bath was monitored as a function of annealing time at 60 s, 100 s and 140 s at 800◦C. The resulting bare spot defects in the Zn-1.6 wt.% Al-1.6 wt.% Mg coating were assessed by means of SAM-AES and FIB, while coating adhesion was analysed by 180◦ bend tests. Annealing the steel substrates resulted in the formation of surface MnO, which varied based on pO2 and Mn alloy content, and that this MnO greatly reduced the wettability of the steel by the Zn-1.6 wt.% Al- 1.6 wt.% Mg bath, resulting in bare spot defects. It was determined that the reactive wetting of the steel substrate was dependant on the oxide morphology and oxidation mode, which was a function of both alloying content of Mn in the steel and annealing pO2 process atmosphere (dew point). Finally, it was concluded that the bare spot area percentage on the coated panels was statistically invariant for annealing times of between 60 s and 140 s at 800◦C. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc) / Metallic coatings are applied to steels that are not naturally corrosion resistant. The aim of this research was to determine how well a coating containing zinc, aluminum and magnesium adhered to high strength automotive steel. It was deter- mined that manganese oxides formed on the steel during heating prior to applying the metallic coating. The manganese oxides prevented good adhesion between the steel and the coating, resulting in bare spot defects in the coating. The bare spot defects are undesirable as they leave the steel exposed and therefore susceptible to corrosion and are unsightly when painted.

Laser beam welding has gained a significant interest during the last two decades. The suitability of the process for high volume production has the possibility to give a strong advantage compared to several other welding methods. However, it is important to have the process in full control since various quality issues may otherwise occur. During laser welding of boron steels quality issues such as imperfections, changes in local and global geometry as well as strength reduction can occur. The aspects that need to be considered are strongly depending on alloy content, process parameters etc. These problems that can occur could be fatal for the construction and the lowest level of occurrence is wanted, independent of industry. The focus of this study has been to investigate the properties of laser welded boron steel. The study includes laser welding of boron alloyed steels with strengths of 1500 MPa and a recently introduced 1900 MPa grade. Focus has been to investigate weldability and the occurrence of cracks, porosity and strength reducing microstructure that can occur during laser welding, as well as distortion studies for tolerances in geometry. The results show that both conventional and 1900 MPa boron alloyed steel are suitable for laser welding. Due to the martensitic structure of welds the material tends to behave brittle. Cracking and porosity do not seem to be an issue limiting the use of these steels. For tolerances in geometry for larger structures tests has been done simulating laser welding of A-pillars and B-pillars. Measurements have been done with Vernier caliper as well as a more advanced optical method capturing the movements during the welding sequence. Results from the tests done on Ushaped beams indicates that depending on the geometry of the structure and heat input distortions can be controlled to give distortions from 1 to 8 mm, at a welding length of 700 mm. This means that important geometry points can be distorted several millimeters if the laser welding process not is controlled.