Laser beam welding has gained a significant interest during the last two decades. The suitability of the process for high volume production has the possibility to give a strong advantage compared to several other welding methods. However, it is important to have the process in full control since various quality issues may otherwise occur. During laser welding of boron steels quality issues such as imperfections, changes in local and global geometry as well as strength reduction can occur. The aspects that need to be considered are strongly depending on alloy content, process parameters etc. These problems that can occur could be fatal for the construction and the lowest level of occurrence is wanted, independent of industry. The focus of this study has been to investigate the properties of laser welded boron steel. The study includes laser welding of boron alloyed steels with strengths of 1500 MPa and a recently introduced 1900 MPa grade. Focus has been to investigate weldability and the occurrence of cracks, porosity and strength reducing microstructure that can occur during laser welding, as well as distortion studies for tolerances in geometry. The results show that both conventional and 1900 MPa boron alloyed steel are suitable for laser welding. Due to the martensitic structure of welds the material tends to behave brittle. Cracking and porosity do not seem to be an issue limiting the use of these steels. For tolerances in geometry for larger structures tests has been done simulating laser welding of A-pillars and B-pillars. Measurements have been done with Vernier caliper as well as a more advanced optical method capturing the movements during the welding sequence. Results from the tests done on Ushaped beams indicates that depending on the geometry of the structure and heat input distortions can be controlled to give distortions from 1 to 8 mm, at a welding length of 700 mm. This means that important geometry points can be distorted several millimeters if the laser welding process not is controlled.

Nowadays there is a strong demand for lighter vehicles in order to increase the pay load. Through this the specific fuel consumption is decreased, the amount of greenhouse gases is lowered and the transport economy improved. One possibility to optimize the weight is to make the components from high strength steels and join them by welding. Welding is the main joining method for fabrication of a large proportion of all engineering structures. Many components experience fatigue loading during all or part of their life time and welded connections are often the prime location of fatigue failure.Fatigue fracture in welded structures often initiates at the weld toe as aconsequence of large residual stresses and changes in geometry acting as stress concentrators. The objective of this research is to increase the understanding of the factors that control fatigue life in welded components made from very high strength steels with a yield strength of more than 800 MPa. In particular the influences of the local weld toe geometry (weld toe radius and angle) and residual stress on fatigue life have been studied. Residual stresses have been varied by welding with conventional as well as Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) filler materials. The three non-destructive techniques Weld Impression Analysis (WIA), Laser Scanning Profiling (LSP) and Structured Light Projection (SLP) have been applied to evaluate the weld toe geometry.Results suggest that all three methods could be used successfully to measure the weld toe radius and angle, but the obtained data are dependent on the evaluation procedure. WIA seems to be a suitable and economical choice when the aim is just finding the radius. However, SLP is a good method to fast obtain a threedimensional image of the weld profile, which also makes it more suitable for quality control in production. It was also found that the use of LTTconsumables increased fatigue life and that residual stress has a relatively larger influence than the weld toe geometry on fatigue strength of welded parts.

The behaviors of short fatigue crack (SFC) propagation through grain boundaries (GBs) were monitored during high cycle fatigue in an Al-Li alloy AA8090. The growth behaviors of SFCs were found to be mainly controlled by the twist components (α) of crack plane deflection across each of up to first 20 GBs along the crack path. The crack plane twist at the GB can result in a resistance against SFC growth; therefore SFC propagation preferred to follow a path with minimum α at each GB. In addition to the grain orientation, the tilting of GB could also affect α. An experiment focusing on quantifying GB-resistance was conducted on an Al-Cu alloy AA2024-T351. With a focused ion beam (FIB) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), the micro-notches were made in front of the selected GBs which had a wide range of α, followed by monitoring the interaction of crack propagation from the notches with the GBs during fatigue. The crack growth rate was observed to decrease at each GB it had passed; and such growth-rate decrease was proportional to α. The resistance of the GB was determined to vary as a Weibull-type function of α. Based on these discoveries, a microstructure-based 3-D model was developed to quantify the SFC growth in high-strength Al alloys, allowing the prediction of crack front advancement in 3-D and the quantification of growth rate along the crack front. The simulation results yielded a good agreement with the experimental results about the SFC growth rate on the surface of the AA8090 Al alloy. The model was also used to predict the life of SFC growth statistically in different textures, showing potential application to texture design of alloys. Fatigue crack initiation at constituent particles (β-phase) was preliminarily studied in the AA2024-T351 Al alloy. Cross-sectioning with the FIB revealed that the 3-D geometry, especially the thickness, of fractured constituent particles (β-phase) was the key factor controlling the driving force for micro-crack growth. The resistance to micro-crack growth, mainly associated with crack plane twist at the particle/matrix interface, also influenced the growth behaviors of the micro-cracks at the particles on the surface.

For ecological reasons, the current main challenge of the automotive industry is to reduce the fuel consumption of vehicles and then emissions of greenhouse gas. In this context, steelmakers and automotive manufacturers decided for some years now to join their efforts to promote the development and use of advanced high strength steels such as TRIP steels. A combination of high strength and large elongation is obtained thanks to the TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) effect. However, improvement of the mechanical properties is still possible, especially by the refinement of the matrix. In this work, two main ways were followed in order to reach improved properties. The classical way consisting of the annealing of cold-rolled samples and an innovative way consisting of obtaining the desired microstructure by direct hot rolling of the samples. In the classical way, this refinement can be obtained by acting on the chemical composition (with such alloying elements like Cu and Nb). It was observed that complete recrystallisation of the ferrite matrix is quite impossible in presence of Cu precipitates. In addition, if the ferrite recrystallisation is not completed before reaching the eutectoid temperature, the recrystallisation will be slowed down by a large way. An innovative heat treatment consisting in keeping the copper in solid solution in the high-Cu steel was developed. Therefore, ferrite recrystallises quite easily and very fine ferrite grains (~1µm) were obtained. In the innovative way, the effects of hot-rolling conditions on TRIP-assisted multiphase steels are of major importance for industrial practice and could open new dimensions for the TRIP steels (i.e. thanks to precipitation mechanisms leading to additive strengthening). Impressive mechanical properties (true stress at maximum load of 1500 MPa and true strain at uniform elongation of 0.22) were obtained with a relatively easy thermomechanical process, the role played by Nb being essential.

M. Tech. (Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technolog / Textile industry effluents are carcinogenic and highly recalcitrant hence difficult to degrade especially through biological methods. Abattoir effluents are classified under high-strength wastewaters because of their characteristic high organic load hence highly biodegradable. Anaerobic co-digestion is the concept of degrading two effluent streams with complementary characteristics in order to improve the substrate removal rate. The feasibility of co-digesting abattoir and textile wastewater in a UASB reactor was evaluated at mesophilic and ambient temperature conditions. Preliminary experiments were conducted in 500 ml batch reactors to evaluate the optimum abattoir to textile synthetic wastewater ratio. The effect of COD, TVFA, alkalinity and pH on biogas yield was examined at both ambient and mesophilic temperatures. Anaerobic co-digestion of abattoir to textile wastewater in the ratio determined in the batch process was carried out in a 3 L UASB reactor by a continuous process. The continuous biodegradation process was executed at three different HRTs (22, 18 and 14 hrs) over a 60 day operation period. UASB reactor efficiency was achieved at organic loads ranging from 3.0 – 10.8 gCOD L-1 day-1. Continuous mode experiments were carried out at influent flow rates which corresponded to HRTs ranging between 1 to 8 days in order to evaluate the steady state operating parameters for the co-digestion process. The abattoir to textile effluent ratio was found to be 60:40 respectively. The COD, TVFA, alkalinity and pH and biogas yield followed a similar pattern over time at both mesophilic and ambient temperature conditions. Experimental data adequately fit the Grau first order kinetic model and average COD removal efficiencies of 85% and BOD5 of around 96% were achieved. The average biogas yield remained essentially constant, around 0.19 L/g CODremoved. The co-digested mixture was found to be biodegradable judging from the BOD:COD ratio of 0.53. TCOD removal efficiency decreased from 93% to 16% as HRT decreased from 8 days to 1 day. The kinetics of a UASB reactor co-digesting the mixture of synthetic abattoir and textile wastewater was evaluated in this study using Grau second order multicomponent substrate removal kinetic model. The Grau second order kinetic model, whose kinetic coefficient (ks) was 0.389, was found to be suitable for predicting the performance of a lab-scale UASB reactor.

Multi-material structures are increasingly used in vehicle bodies to reduce weight of cars. The use of these lightweight structures is driven by requirements to improve fuel economy and reduce CO2 emissions. The automotive industry has replaced conventional steel components by lighter metals such as aluminium alloy. This is done together with cutting weight of structures using more advanced strength steels. However, sound joining is still difficult to achieve due to differences in chemical and thermal properties.   This research aims to develop a new innovative welding technique for joining aluminium alloy to ultra-high strength steels. The technique is based on friction stir welding process while the non-consumable tool is made of an ordinary tool steel. Welding was done by penetrating the rotating tool from the aluminium side without penetrating into the steel surface. One grade of Al-Mg aluminium alloy was welded to ultra-high strength steels under lap joint configuration. Different types of steel surface coatings including uncoated, hot-dipped galvanised and electrogalvanised coating have been studied in order to investigate the influence of zinc on the joint properties. The correlation among welding parameters, microstructures, intermetallic formation and mechanical properties are demonstrated in this thesis.  Results have shown that friction stir welding can deliver fully strong joints between aluminium alloy and ultra-high strength steels. Two intermetallic phases, Al5Fe2 and Al13Fe4, were formed at the interface of Al to Fe regardless of surface coating conditions. The presence of zinc can improve joint strength especially at low heat input welding due to an increased atomic bonding at Al-Fe interface. The formation of intermetallic phases as well as their characteristics has been demonstrated in this thesis. The proposed welding mechanisms are given based on metallography investigations and related literature. / <p>QC 20170519</p>

In this thesis the experimental results of seven full-scale glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) reinforced concrete (RC) slab-column edge connections are presented. The dimensions of the slabs were 2,800×1,550×200 mm with a square column measuring 300×300×2,200 mm. The test connections were divided into two series. Series I included three connections investigating the effect of flexural reinforcement ratio (0.90, 1.35 and 1.80%) when high strength concrete (HSC) is used, while Series II included four connections investigating the effect of GFRP shear reinforcement type and pattern on normal strength concrete (NSC) connections. Test results showed that increasing the reinforcement ratio increased the punching capacity and the post-cracking stiffness of the HSC connections. Furthermore, the use of headed studs and corrugated bars increased the punching capacity and the deformability of the NSC connections. Test results were compared to the predictions of the Canadian and American design provisions for FRP-RC structures. / February 2017

Dual-Phase (DP) steels, part of the group of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS), are used by car manufactures due to its large strength to weight ratio. The high strength of the DP steel does have a negative impact on the formability during sheet metal forming and stretch forming, e.g. fractures often appear in shear cut edges during forming of blanks made of DP steel.   The main objective with this thesis is to develop a new punch for Volvo Cars that concentrates the strain to the sheared edges of a test specimen made from different types of DP steel. This is done to be able to measure and obtain maximum fracture strain during stretch forming tests in a press. The newly developed test method is called CTEST (Concentrated Trim Edge Strain Test).   The tests are performed with DP steel specimens with three different qualities of the shear cut edges; fine cut, medium cut and worn cut. DP steels tested are DP600GI, DP600UC and DP800GI from three different suppliers. 10 different types of DP steels are tested in this study with different thickness. Thickness of specimens tested are 1 mm, 1.1 mm, 1.5 mm and 2 mm and all specimens tested have a lengthwise (RD) rolling direction.   The quality of the sheared cut edge has a great impact to the formability and maximum fracture strain of the specimen. A specimen with a fine cut endures higher fracture strain than medium cut and a worn cut for all types of DP steel with different thickness. A 1 mm thick specimen endures a lower fracture strain than 1.5 mm and 2 mm specimen for all cut qualities.   Further, the impact of the orientation of the burr zone of a shear cut edge is studied. With the burr zone facing upwards from the CTEST punch the formability of the specimens is decreased compared to a burr zone facing downwards, especially for a worn cut specimen with micro cracks and imperfections in the edge surface.   ARAMIS Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system is used to analyze the specimen edges during press experiments. The ARAMIS results unveil that several small fractures appear in the sheared edges of a specimen just before the specimens split into two pieces. This phenomenon was seen for specimen with worn and medium shear cut qualities.   Finite Element (FE) simulations of the CTEST is performed in AutoForm to determine maximum values of the true strain for the three different cut qualities. The simulation in AutoForm does show a slightly higher value of the force and press depth than the value from the press test before maximum fracture strain in reached. The small fractures seen in ARAMIS just before the specimen split into two pieces cannot be seen in the simulation in AutoForm.

A aplicação de chapas de aço como revestimento em matrizes de forjamento a quente tem sido estudada como uma alternativa inovadora, dentro de um projeto de cooperação internacional titulado “Evaluation of Sheet Metal Covers to Improve Tool Life in Forging”. Pesquisa realizada em parceria com a Alemanha pelo programa BRAGECRIM. Essas chapas serviriam como um metal de sacrifício em matrizes de forjamento a quente, que pretende substituir tratamentos superficiais de alto custo. As limitações geométricas e propriedades mecânicas das chapas garantiriam o sucesso ou não da gravura conforme o design exigido pela ferramenta, como também o número de ciclos de forjamento mantendo-se a integridade. Desta forma, o conhecimento das propriedades mecânicas em chapas e ductilidade torna-se fundamental para garantir os limites de aplicabilidade. Portanto, este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar as propriedades mecânicas e os aspectos metalúrgicos em diferentes temperaturas de duas chapas de alta resistência DP600 e Hardox450®, os quais possuem diferentes microestruturas e ductilidade. Esta escolha se deve as diferentes aplicações que ambos os materiais possuem na indústria automobilística, devido as suas propriedades físicas, com a hipótese que influenciará na aplicação como máscaras que irão proteger as matrizes. Para isso foram realizados ensaios de dureza após ciclos de aquecimento e tração em diferentes temperaturas, com taxa de deformação controlada, simulando as condições térmicas que o material irá suportar durante o processo de forjamento. Para avaliar a ductilidade das chapas foi realizado o ensaio de estiramento biaxial. Uma análise pelo método de elementos finitos foi utilizada no ensaio de estiramento de punção esférico Erichsen, o qual foi possível pela análise de laboratório validar os experimentos e então a realização da simulação de estampagem de uma geometria bi radial em formato de copo. Os resultados de tração e dureza mostram que o DP600 possui considerável resistência mecânica em altas temperaturas com boa ductilidade, porém não maior que o Hardox450®, que perde em termos de ductilidade devido a fenômenos de fragilização em altas temperaturas. A simulação numérica permitiu avaliar como seria o produto estampado em uma geometria 3D, sobre os aspectos geométricos da chapa e os efeitos de anisotropia do DP600, como também suas tensões. / The application of sheet metal cover in hot forging dies has been studied as an innovative alternative, within an international project titled "Evaluation of sheet metal covers to improve tool life in forging". Research carried out in partnership with Germany under the BRAGECRIM program. The sheet metal would apply as a sacrificial membrane in the hot forging die, which intended to replace expensive surface treatments. The geometrical limitations and mechanical properties of the plates would guarantee the success or failure of the engraving according to the design required by the tool, as well as the number of forging cycles maintaining the integrity. In this way, the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the sheet metals and ductility becomes fundamental to guarantee the limits of applicability. Therefore, this work has as objective to evaluate the mechanical properties and the metallurgical aspects in different temperatures of two advanced High Strength Steel Sheets DP600 and Hardox450®, which have different microstructures and ductility. This choice is due to the different applications that both materials have in the automotive industry due to their properties, with the hypothesis that will influence the application as masks that will protect dies. Therefore, a hardness test has performed after heating cycles and tensile tests at different temperatures, with a controlled strain rate, simulating the thermal conditions that the material will withstand during the forging process. Biaxial stretching test to evaluate the ductility of the plates were performed. An inverse analysis by the finite element method was used in the Erichsen biaxial stretching test, in which it has been possible to validate the experiments and then to perform the stamping simulation of a bi-radial geometry in a cup format. The results show that the DP600 has considerable mechanical resistance at high temperatures with good ductility, but not higher than the Hardox450®, which is inferior in terms of ductility due to embrittlement phenomena at high temperatures. The numerical simulation allowed an evaluation of how the product can be stamped in a 3D geometry, the geometric aspects of the plate, the anisotropy effects of the DP600, as well as stress distributions.

Esta tese discute as análises teórica e experimental de pilares de seção retangular, esbeltos, confinados por estribos, de concreto de alta resistência, sujeitos à flexo-compressão, considerando os estados limites últimos de ruptura do concreto ou por deformação excessiva das barras da armadura ou por instabilidade. Foram ensaiados 12 modelos de pilares com esbeltez mecânica igual a 92, compondo três séries de 4 pilares cada uma; os parâmetros estudados foram a excentricidade da força, a taxa volumétrica de armadura transversal e a resistência do concreto. Em uma segunda fase, foram analisados 9 pilares curtos de seção quadrada à compressão concêntrica com o objetivo de avaliar a ductilidade e obter as propriedades do concreto confinado. Para a realização dos ensaios foram empregadas rótulas unidirecionais, que permitiram transferir a força excêntrica ao pilar. Para a obtenção das resistências dos concretos, foram realizados ensaios para a determinação da composição dos materiais e foram traçadas curvas de dosagem. Os resultados experimentais foram comparados com os obtidos com o método exato que considera a não linearidade física e geométrica por meio de programas computacionais elaborados pelo autor. Observou-se que os resultados experimentais se aproximaram dos resultados teóricos. As ruínas dos pilares esbeltos foram por instabilidade, sendo que todos eles atingiram o ponto limite. Foi verificado que a capacidade resistente dos pilares é muito sensível para pequenas variações da excentricidade da força. Nos modelos analíticos foram incorporadas formulações de várias normas que contemplam concretos de alta resistência e o critério de confinamento indicadas pela literatura técnica com algumas modificações. Foi verificada uma pequena melhora na ductilidade ao incrementar a taxa de armadura transversal dos modelos ensaiados. Com os resultados obtidos e com as formulações analisadas, sugere-se uma forma alternativa de projeto de pilares esbeltos. / This thesis discusses the theoretical and experimental analyses of slender high-strength concrete rectangular columns confinement by lateral reinforcement, subjected to combined axial load and bending, considering the ultimate limit states of concrete crushing at the compressive face or the longitudinal bars excessive deformation or the column instability. Twelve column models were tested with 92 mechanical slenderness. These models included three series of four columns each; the parameters studied were axial load eccentricity, volumetric lateral reinforcement ratio and concrete strength. In a second step, nine square cross section short columns under concentric compression were tested to evaluate ductility and to obtain the confined concrete properties. A pair of unidirectional hinges was used to transfer the eccentric load to the columns. Tests were carried out for material\'s composition determination and dosage curves were drawn to obtain concrete strengths. The experimental results were compared with those obtained using the exact method that considers physical and geometrical nonlinearities through computational programs prepared by the author. There is not a significant difference between experimental and theoretical results. The instability failure was reach in all columns because of high slenderness, all of they reached the limit point. It was observed that the column ultimate strength is very sensitive for small axial load eccentricity variations. The formulations of several standards codes that consider the high-strength concrete and technical literature confinement criterion with some modifications have been incorporated in the analytical models. A small ductility improvement was observed considering the tests volumetric lateral reinforcement ratio increase. There is an alternative method suggested for slender columns design, based on the obtained results.