La recherche de vie extraterrestre et en particulier de vie sur Mars est devenue un des enjeux majeurs des prochaines explorations spatiales. Dans ce cadre, la recherche de molécules organiques et l'étude de leur énantiomérie pourrait permettre d'obtenir les premiers indices en faveur d'une présence passée ou présente de vie sur cette planète. En effet la vie telle que nous la connaissons est uniquement basée sur des acides aminés L et sucres D. Ces molécules organiques et leur éventuel excès énantiomérique pourraient avoir été conservés dans les conditions martiennes. La chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse (CPG-SM) est actuellement la technique analytique spatialisable la plus pertinente pour la détection de composés organiques volatils. Afin de rendre volatils les composés réfractaires tels que les acides aminés, nous proposons une fonctionnalisation chimique au diméthylformamide diméthyl-acétal (DMF-DMA). Cette fonctionnalisation couplée à une séparation chromatographique sur une colonne chirale est une technique parfaitement adaptée à la séparation énantiomérique et à la spatialisation. Nous avons donc mis au point une méthode de fonctionnalisation des molécules organiques chirales par l'agent de méthylation DMF-DMA afin de séparer les énantiomères et de les étudier in situ en CPG-SM lors des futures missions martiennes. Cette technique d'analyse des molécules réfractaires chirales a ensuite été adaptée à une utilisation spatiale. Ainsi, la méthode d'analyse est constituée d'un four réactionnel dans lequel l'échantillon solide estplacé, les molécules d'intérêt exobiologique sont ensuite successivement extraites et fonctionnalisées au DMFDMA pour être analysées en CPG-SM. Les résultats ont permis de montrer qu' à partir d'une faible quantité de sols d'analogues martiens (50 mg de sol du désert d'Atacama, Chili) et après optimisation de chacune des étapes, plusieurs types de molécules organiques présentes à l'état de traces ont pu être détectées, telles que des acides aminés, des acides carboxyliques et des bases nucléiques. Parmi ces molécules chirales, plusieurs ont pu être séparées selon leur forme énantiomérique. Le protocole est élaboré dans les limites technologiques et opératoires d'une analyse spatiale ; chaque étape est pensée pour un usage robotisé. Nous avons ainsi développé une expérience globale, sensible et robuste, totalement compatible avec les exigences d'une analyse in situ. C'est la raison pour laquelle cette expérience sera intégrée sur la prochaine mission martienne Exomars 2016/2018 afin de rechercher des traces de matière organique à la surface et en subsurface de Mars. La découverte d'un excès énantiomérique, voire d'une homochiralité, apporterait des indices forts quant à la présence d'une vie passée ou présente sur la planète rouge.

La recherche de vie extraterrestre et en particulier de vie sur Mars est devenue un des enjeux majeurs des prochaines explorations spatiales. Dans ce cadre, la recherche de molécules organiques et l’étude de leur énantiomérie pourrait permettre d'obtenir les premiers indices en faveur d'une présence passée ou présente de vie sur cette planète. En effet la vie telle que nous la connaissons est uniquement basée sur des acides aminés L et sucres D. Ces molécules organiques et leur éventuel excès énantiomérique pourraient avoir été conservés dans les conditions martiennes. La chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse (CPG-SM) est actuellement la technique analytique spatialisable la plus pertinente pour la détection de composés organiques volatils. Afin de rendre volatils les composés réfractaires tels que les acides aminés, nous proposons une fonctionnalisation chimique au diméthylformamide diméthyl-acétal (DMF-DMA). Cette fonctionnalisation couplée à une séparation chromatographique sur une colonne chirale est une technique parfaitement adaptée à la séparation énantiomérique et à la spatialisation. Nous avons donc mis au point une méthode de fonctionnalisation des molécules organiques chirales par l’agent de méthylation DMF-DMA afin de séparer les énantiomères et de les étudier in situ en CPG-SM lors des futures missions martiennes. Cette technique d'analyse des molécules réfractaires chirales a ensuite été adaptée à une utilisation spatiale. Ainsi, la méthode d’analyse est constituée d’un four réactionnel dans lequel l’échantillon solide estplacé, les molécules d’intérêt exobiologique sont ensuite successivement extraites et fonctionnalisées au DMFDMA pour être analysées en CPG-SM. Les résultats ont permis de montrer qu’ à partir d’une faible quantité de sols d'analogues martiens (50 mg de sol du désert d’Atacama, Chili) et après optimisation de chacune des étapes, plusieurs types de molécules organiques présentes à l’état de traces ont pu être détectées, telles que des acides aminés, des acides carboxyliques et des bases nucléiques. Parmi ces molécules chirales, plusieurs ont pu être séparées selon leur forme énantiomérique. Le protocole est élaboré dans les limites technologiques et opératoires d’une analyse spatiale ; chaque étape est pensée pour un usage robotisé. Nous avons ainsi développé une expérience globale, sensible et robuste, totalement compatible avec les exigences d’une analyse in situ. C’est la raison pour laquelle cette expérience sera intégrée sur la prochaine mission martienne Exomars 2016/2018 afin de rechercher des traces de matière organique à la surface et en subsurface de Mars. La découverte d’un excès énantiomérique, voire d’une homochiralité, apporterait des indices forts quant à la présence d’une vie passée ou présente sur la planète rouge. / Looking for extraterrestrial life, particularly on Mars, has become a challenging aim for future space missions. In this framework, looking for organic molecules and studying their enantiomeric properties could lead to the first clues of an extinct or extant life on this planet. Indeed, life as we know it consists in one of the two specular forms of organic molecules only, and it has been shown that conditions at Mars could preserve, at least partially, this enantiomeric excess. Gas Chromatograph coupled to a Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS) is nowadays the most pertinent space compatible analytical tool for the detection of volatile organics. In order to transform refractory molecules suchas amino acids into volatile ones, we are putting forward a chemical derivatization with dimethylformamidedimethyl-acetal (DMF-DMA). This reaction, when coupled with an analytical step using a chiral chromatographic column, is perfectly adapted to enantiomeric separation within the space constraints. This thesis develops a method of derivatization of the chiral organic molecules with methylation reagent DMFDMA in order to separate and analyze in situ the enantiomers by GC-MS during the future Martian missions. This analytical tool consists in a reaction chamber into which the solid sample is dropped. From this sample, the molecules of interest are successively extracted and derivatized with DMF-DMA to be detected byGC-MS. From a low quantity of Martian analogue soil (50 mg of Atacama soil) and after a complete optimization of each step, numerous molecules of different kinds present at traces levels have been successfully detected, such as amino, carboxylic and nucleic acids. Among these molecules, some of the chiralones have been resolved regarding their enantiomeric forms. The whole procedure is elaborated within the technological and operational limits imposed by a space experiment, each step having been designed to becarried out robotically. Thus, we have developed a complete experiment, sensitive, robust and entirely meeting the requirements of an in situ analysis. That is the reason why this experiment has been selected to be integrated onboard the next Martian mission Exomars 2016/2018 in order to search traces of organic matter at Mars surface and subsurface. Determining an enantiomeric excess, or even homochirality, would be a remarkable breakthrough regarding the presence of an extinct or extant life on the red planet.

Chirality is the property of objects, including molecules, which are not superimposable on their materialized mirror image. Chiral molecules are omnipresent in living organisms and the constituents of biological macromolecules (proteins and nucleic acids) are chiral. Amino-acids (constituting proteins), ribose and 2-deoxy-ribose (the only chiral constituent of RNA and DNA nucleotides respectively) are furthermore generally present in living organisms only under one of their enantiomeric forms. This is referred to as the homochirality of the living world. The origin of this homochirality is still unexplained, even if many partial scenarios have been proposed in the literature. All scenarios involve the creation of a small enantiomeric excess for certain molecules, amplification of this excess and chirality transfer to other chiral molecules. The origin of homochirality on Earth is closely related to the origin of life, and is currently supposed to have preceded life. As no-one will ever be able to directly observe the phenomena which lead to homochirality, and life, on our planet, the only scientific approach to try and help explain how this occurred is to build scenarios, and test them taking into account all available information on the physical and chemical conditions on the primitive Earth (Earth before life appeared). In our work, we investigated three scenarios related to the origin of homochirality on Earth. One of these scenarios also relates to a very precise step of the origin of life: the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides. Enantiomeric excesses (up to 15 %) of alpha-methylated alpha-amino-acids have been detected in meteorites which fell on Earth during the 20th century. No enantiomeric excess is detected for the corresponding alpha-hydroxy-acids in the same meteoritic samples and small (2% at most) or no enantiomeric excesses have been measured for non-methylated alpha-amino-acids. In the first part of our work, we investigated if photolysis by circularly polarized light (CPL) in space could be at the origin of the presence (or absence) of an enantiomeric excess for these compounds. Experiments to reproduce UV-CPL photolysis are difficult to undertake: they require high-energy circularly polarized photons, hence the use of a synchrotron. In our work, we used quantum mechanical calculations to obtain the electronic circular dichroïsm (ECD) spectra of two -methylated -amino-acids, their corresponding alpha-hydroxy-acids and one non-methylated alpha-amino-acid. Differences are observed between these spectra, and we propose a scenario to explain the experimental measurements reported here above: the enantioselective photolysis, in the gas phase at low temperatures (20K at most), of the alpha-amino-acids by UV-CPL with lambda>210 nm. Under these conditions no photolysis of the alpha-hydroxy-acids would occur. This scenario concerns the first step in the origin of homochirality on Earth: the creation of a small enantiomeric excess for some chiral molecules. The second scenario that we investigated relates to the enantiomeric amplification step of the origin of homochirality on Earth, for which the role of the alpha-amino-acid serine has been suggested in the literature. Serine clusters have been observed in the gas phase by mass spectrometry. Among these clusters the octamer has been shown to be a magic number cluster and to have a preference for homochirality. An enantiomeric amplification via cycles of formation and dissociation of the octamer has been suggested. No complete scenario has however been proposed in the literature to explain how this could have occurred on the primitive Earth, but any scenario would most probably include an aqueous phase. We aimed at determining if the homochiral preference of serine octamers also exists in solution and therefore we first investigated if serine octamers exist in solution. For this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopies, which are well-adapted to the study of molecular assemblies in solution. We were able to demonstrate that most probably serine clusters are not present in solution, and if they are it could only be in extremely low concentration. The scenario suggested in the literature is discussed in the light of our results and of literature data on serine clusters. As last hypothesis, we investigated a possible scenario for the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides. The currently known prebiotic synthesis pathways to ribose also lead to the formation of many other carbohydrates, and ribose is only a minor product of these syntheses. Our hypothesis is that beta-d-ribofuranose could have been selected through favorable interactions with -amino-acids already present on the primitive Earth under one enantiomeric form. Indeed, it is plausible that a peptidic world emerged before the presence of RNA and that homochiral -amino-acids were present on Earth when RNA was synthesized. Under this hypothesis, we investigated the role that alpha-l-amino-acids could have played in the selection of alpha-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides. This work is related to the last step of the origin of homochirality: chirality transfer. Our scenario was investigated via nuclear magnetic resonance studies of the interaction between alpha-amino-acids and carbohydrates. We were able to show that, in the systems that we studied, when an interaction occurs it is very weak (affinity constant less than 1M−1) and non enantioselective. Our results most probably discard the role that alpha-amino-acids alone could have played in the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides, but does not discard the role that peptides could have played in this selection.

Cette thèse constitue un travail novateur dans l’analyse in situ multi disciplinaire de la surface du noyau d’une comète réalisé à l’aide du “Cometary Sampling and Composition Experiment” (COSAC). COSAC est un chromatographe en phase gazeuse et un spectromètre de masse embarqué à bord du module d’atterrissage Philae de l’Agence Spatiale Européenne dans le cadre de la mission vers la comète 67P/Tchourioumov-Guérassimenko. La thèse aborde de façon globale trois campagnes expérimentales et analytiques toutes dirigées vers les objectifs de COSAC après son futur atterrissage sur 67P. La quatrième partie, qui est un travail géologique vise à identifier le cratère de Lonar comme analogue martien. La première des expériences mentionnée ci-dessus implique l’irradiation de valine racémique à l’aide de lumière polarisé circulairement (cpl) générée par synchrotron. Nous avons démontré pour la première fois qu’en changeant l’énergie de la cpl pour une hélicité donnée de 6,19 eV à 6,74 eV, le signe de la valeur de l’excès énantiomérique des acides aminés change (dans ce cas la valine). Dans une seconde partie, nous avons démontré pour la première fois la présence de carbone graphitique dans le tholin, un solide complexe et organique synthétisé à partir de l’irradiation de décharge de plasma d’un mélange de N2:CH4=9:1. Nous expliquons que la présence possible de graphite enrichi de matière organique de type tholin sur la surface de noyaux cométaires pourrait bien contribuer à leur faible albédo géométrique typique. / This cumulative thesis forms a multi-disciplinary groundwork for the pioneering in situ organic analyses of a comet nuclei surface to be performed by the Cometary Sampling and Composition Experiment (COSAC). COSAC is a Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer on board the Philae Lander probe of European Space Agency’s Rosetta mission to comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The thesis holistically addresses three myriad experimental and analytical campaigns all directing to the objectives of COSAC subsequent to its landing on 67P. The fourth original geological fieldwork directs to the identification of Lonar Crater as a Martian analogue. Our first of the above mentioned experiments involved irradiation of racemic valine with synchrotron-generated circular polarized light (cpl). We made a novel demonstration that changing the energy of a certain helicity of cpl from 6.19 eV to 6.74 eV switches the sign of the enantiomeric excess value of amino acids – in this case valine. The second experiment for the first time demonstrated the presence of graphitic carbon in tholin, a complex organic solid synthesized from plasma discharge irradiation of a mixture N2:CH4=9:1. We explain that the possible presence of graphite enriched tholin-like organic material on the surface of comet nuclei could well be contributing to their typical low geometric albedos. The third experiment was directed at performance evaluation of COSAC-MS carried out with its Flight Spare Model located at the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research.

Le dichroïsme circulaire de photoélectrons (PECD) se manifeste par une intense asymétrie avant/arrière dans la distribution angulaire de photoélectrons selon l’axe des photons, lors de la photoionisation d’un énantiomère pur de molécule chirale en phase gazeuse par un rayonnement polarisé circulairement. Cette thèse est consacrée à l’étude de ce phénomène, avec le synchrotron de la ligne DESIRS, sur différents systèmes chiraux allant de molécules libres (composés bromés, alanine) aux agrégats de glycidol et aux complexes formés avec l’eau. Pour ce faire, des mesures expérimentales menées à l’aide du spectromètre double imageur à coïncidence électron/ion DELICIOUS 3 ont été couplées à des calculs théoriques (CMS-Xα). Le chapitre 1 introduit les concepts fondamentaux nécessaires à l’étude de la chiralité en physique et le chapitre 2 présente les méthodes expérimentales et théoriques mises en œuvre. Le chapitre 3 détaille les résultats obtenus sur des composés chiraux halogénés : l’acide bromo-propionique (BPA) et les isomères 1,3- et 1,4-bromo-phényléthylamine (BrPhEtA). La sensibilité du PECD à l’isomérie, de même que le rôle de la localisation de l’orbitale initiale par rapport au centre chiral sont au cœur de cette étude. Le PECD du plus simple acide aminé chiral protéique, l’alanine, produit par chauffage résistif et par thermo-désorption d’aérosol, est présenté au chapitre 4 avec une étude conformationnelle selon la température conduisant à une distribution plausible des conformères. Ces résultats sont ensuite discutés dans le contexte de l’homochiralité de la vie (i.e. le fait que les acides aminés sont tous de type L dans la biosphère), le PECD étant un processus photophysique asymétrique pouvant induire un enrichissement énantiomérique. Le chapitre 5 s’intéresse au PECD sur des systèmes plus complexes : les agrégats de glycidol et les complexes de glycidol et d’eau. Une simple sélection en masse permet de mettre en évidence un effet spectaculaire de l’agrégation sur le PECD observé. DELICIOUS 3 permet ensuite d’éliminer des processus en cascade par une sélection en taille des neutres natifs. / Photoelectron Circular Dichroism (PECD) is observed as a forward/backward asymmetry, with respect to the photon axis, of the photoelectron angular distributions resulting from the circularly polarized light-induced photoionization of gas phase pure enantiomers of chiral species. This thesis is devoted to the study, with the synchrotron of the DESIRS beamline, of this phenomenon on different chiral systems from free molecules (bromine compounds, alanine) to glycidol clusters and water-glycidol complexes. Chapter 1 introduces the fundamental concepts required for the study of chirality in physics and chapter 2 presents the experimental and theoretical methods which have been used. Chapter 3 gives details concerning the results on the halogenated chiral compounds: bromopropionic acid (BPA) and 1,3- and 1,4-bromo-phenylethylamine isomers (BrPhEtA). The sensitivity of PECD to isomerism as well as the role of the localization of the initial orbital of the outgoing electron with respect to the chiral center is at the core of this study. The PECD of the simplest proteic chiral amino acid, alanine, produced by resistive heating and thermodesorption of an aerosol, is introduced in chapter 4 with a conformational study depending on temperature, leading to a plausible conformer distribution. These results are then discussed in the context of homochirality of life (i.e. the fact that only L-amino acids are found in the biosphere) as PECD is an asymmetric photophysical processes which can induce an enantiomeric enrichment. Chapter 5 is focused on PECD in systems of greater complexity: glycidol clusters and water-glycidol complexes. A simple mass selection enables to unravel a spectacular clustering effect on the observed PECD and the use of DELICIOUS 3 enables then to remove any cascading processes thanks to a size selection of nascent species.

Chirality is the property of objects, including molecules, which are not superimposable on their materialized mirror image. Chiral molecules are omnipresent in living organisms and the constituents of biological macromolecules (proteins and nucleic acids) are chiral. Amino-acids (constituting proteins), ribose and 2-deoxy-ribose (the only chiral constituent of RNA and DNA nucleotides respectively) are furthermore generally present in living organisms only under one of their enantiomeric forms. This is referred to as the homochirality of the living world. The origin of this homochirality is still unexplained, even if many partial scenarios have been proposed in the literature. All scenarios involve the creation of a small enantiomeric excess for certain molecules, amplification of this excess and chirality transfer to other chiral molecules. The origin of homochirality on Earth is closely related to the origin of life, and is currently supposed to have preceded life. As no-one will ever be able to directly observe the phenomena which lead to homochirality, and life, on our planet, the only scientific approach to try and help explain how this occurred is to build scenarios, and test them taking into account all available information on the physical and chemical conditions on the primitive Earth (Earth before life appeared). In our work, we investigated three scenarios related to the origin of homochirality on Earth. One of these scenarios also relates to a very precise step of the origin of life: the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides.<p><p>Enantiomeric excesses (up to 15 %) of alpha-methylated alpha-amino-acids have been detected in meteorites which fell on Earth during the 20th century. No enantiomeric excess is detected for the corresponding alpha-hydroxy-acids in the same meteoritic samples and small (2% at most) or no enantiomeric excesses have been measured for non-methylated alpha-amino-acids. In the first part of our work, we investigated if photolysis by circularly polarized light (CPL) in space could be at the origin of the presence (or absence) of an enantiomeric excess for these compounds. Experiments to reproduce UV-CPL photolysis are difficult to undertake: they require high-energy circularly polarized photons, hence the use of a synchrotron. In our work, we used quantum mechanical calculations to obtain the electronic circular dichroïsm (ECD) spectra of two -methylated -amino-acids, their corresponding alpha-hydroxy-acids and one non-methylated alpha-amino-acid. Differences are observed between these spectra, and we propose a scenario to explain the experimental measurements reported here above: the enantioselective photolysis, in the gas phase at low temperatures (20K at most), of the alpha-amino-acids by UV-CPL with lambda>210 nm. Under these conditions no photolysis of the alpha-hydroxy-acids would occur. This scenario concerns the first step in the origin of homochirality on Earth: the creation of a small enantiomeric excess for some chiral molecules.<p><p>The second scenario that we investigated relates to the enantiomeric amplification step of the origin of homochirality on Earth, for which the role of the alpha-amino-acid serine has been suggested in the literature. Serine clusters have been observed in the gas phase by mass spectrometry. Among these clusters the octamer has been shown to be a magic number cluster and to have a preference for homochirality. An enantiomeric amplification via cycles of formation and dissociation of the octamer has been suggested. No complete scenario has however been proposed in the literature to explain how this could have occurred on the primitive Earth, but any scenario would most probably include an aqueous phase. We aimed at determining if the homochiral preference of serine octamers also exists in solution and therefore we first investigated if serine octamers exist in solution. For this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopies, which are well-adapted to the study of molecular assemblies in solution. We were able to demonstrate that most probably serine clusters are not present in solution, and if they are it could only be in extremely low concentration. The scenario suggested in the literature is discussed in the light of our results and of literature data on serine clusters.<p><p>As last hypothesis, we investigated a possible scenario for the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides. The currently known prebiotic synthesis pathways to ribose also lead to the formation of many other carbohydrates, and ribose is only a minor product of these syntheses. Our hypothesis is that beta-d-ribofuranose could have been selected through favorable interactions with alpha-amino-acids already present on the primitive Earth under one enantiomeric form. Indeed, it is plausible that a peptidic world emerged before the presence of RNA and that homochiral alpha-amino-acids were present on Earth when RNA was synthesized. Under this hypothesis, we investigated the role that alpha-l-amino-acids could have played in the selection of alpha-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides. This work is related to the last step of the origin of homochirality: chirality transfer. Our scenario was investigated via nuclear magnetic resonance studies of the interaction between alpha-amino-acids and carbohydrates. We were able to show that, in the systems that we studied, when an interaction occurs it is very weak (affinity constant less than 1M−1) and non enantioselective. Our results most probably discard the role that alpha-amino-acids alone could have played in the selection of beta-d-ribofuranose as component of RNA nucleotides, but does not discard the role that peptides could have played in this selection. / Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished