Avec l’évolution du Consensus de Washington comme fil conducteur, nous montrons que la gouvernance est partie à la reconquête de son caractère politique, caractère que les tenants du « tout marché » lui avaient retiré. Une fois le constat établi d’une gouvernance désormais démocratique, nous analysons les indicateurs produits pour la quantifier. Ces indicateurs sont en majorité des indices de perceptions, ils demeurent imparfaits, parfois biaisés.En nous intéressant à la mesure de la corruption, nous avons mis à jour l’existence d’un biais que nous qualifions de réflectif ou médiatique. La liberté de la presse joue un rôle important sur les perceptions. Nous suggérons que l’indice de perception de la corruption produit par Transparency International pénalise les jeunes démocraties. L’ouverture des médias et une liberté de la presse grandissante, en mettant à jour les actes de corruption jusqu’alors non révélés, influencent les experts de Transparency International qui ont tendance à dégrader leur notation.Récemment, un nouvel outil est apparu pour mesurer la qualité institutionnelle. Si les enquêtes menées auprès des ménages ne sont pas nouvelles en tant que telles, leur systématisation ouvre de nombreuses perspectives. En utilisant le Gallup World Poll nous avons été en mesure d’observer le ressenti des populations concernant la corruption, et ce, à une échelle encore inédite. Nous avons alors été en mesure de comparer les perceptions des ménages à celles des experts. Nous avons alors identifié les déterminants de ces écarts et montré l’influence de facteurs comme la liberté de la presse, la nature du régime politique ou encore la confiance envers les gouvernements. / With Washington Consensus as leit motiv, we show that governance ultimately reaffirmed its political nature which “whole market” supporters tried to eradicate. Once established the now democratic nature of governance, we study the indicators produced to evaluate it. These indexes are mostly perceptions indicators. Thus, they remain unperfected, sometimes biased.Focusing on corruption measurement, we uncovered a media or reflective bias. Press freedom plays an important role on perceptions. We suggest that the Corruption Perception Index, provided by Transparency International (TI) penalizes young democracies. Media aperture, broadcasting corruption deeds so far unrevealed, likely influences TI experts that consequently deteriorate their notations.Recently, a new tool appears to assess institutional quality. If household surveys are not brand new, their systematization opens new perspectives. Using Gallup Worl Poll, we were able to observe population’s feeling towards corruption at a global scale. Thus, we were able to compare population’s and expert’s perceptions. We then identified this gap determinants and put the light on the influence of press freedom, political organization or leadership approval.

Zugl.: Bonn, University, Diss., 2004.

published_or_final_version / Medical Sciences / Master / Master of Medical Sciences

The objectives of this thesis were firstly, to review existing literature in order to identify broadly accepted and measurable indicators of the possible causes of poverty and the resulting symptoms. Secondly, to gather baseline information from a group of land reform beneficiaries in order to identify the different dimensions of poverty affecting the current and future well-being of these households. Thirdly, to undertake empirical analysis to assign these households to a small number of groups exhibiting different symptoms of poverty and then explain these differences in terms of their possible causes. A census survey of 38 land reform beneficiary households - members of a Communal Property Association (CPA) established to purchase Clipstone, a 630 hectare subdivision of the farm Sherwood in the midlands of KwaZulu-Natal - was conducted in May 2002 to gather data on poverty indicators. Principal Component Analysis was used to construct an index of the standard of housing, which was then combined with variables measuring other symptoms of poverty (income, wealth and health) in a Cluster Analysis of the households. This revealed five clusters representing four distinct groups of poverty; households relatively income and asset rich, income rich but asset poor, asset rich but income poor and households with the lowest incomes and assets. Linear Discriminant Analysis was then used to distinguish the households that were relatively income and asset "rich" from those that were relatively income and asset poor, and those that were relatively income poor but "asset rich" from those relatively asset poor but "income rich". The main distinguishing indicators were found to be gender of the household head, family size, dependency ratio, education and access to markets. These findings show that there is a need to increase child welfare grants as pension earnings become less effective (due to decreasing life expectancy and high levels of dependence on pensions as a source of income) in the short run. In the long run, there is a need for increased education and vocational training - especially for women along with better access to transport, jobs and banking facilities (to mobilise savings). / Thesis (M.Agric.Mgt.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

In this study, a household resilience score was developed as a measure of rural household resilience to identify households with low resilience and to measure progress towards improved household resilience. Resilience is the ability of households to cope with risk. The motivation for the study originated from the first objective of the Framework of African Food Security (FAFS) of improved household risk management, and the indicator of progress towards this objective – proposed by the FAFS - a resilience score. A review of the literature indicated that the assets owned by a household could be used as a proxy for resilience. The household component of the Demographic and Health Surveys for six African countries was used to develop and apply the resilience score. The score was estimated using an index of assets owned by the household and information regarding household access to certain services and characteristics of the dwelling. There is disagreement in the literature concerning the best method of constructing an asset index in terms of how to weight the variables included in the index. As a result, four methods of constructing an index of socio-economic status (SES) were selected for comparison in this study: two linear principal component analysis (PCA) techniques; a non-linear or categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) method; and a simple sum of assets technique. The results from the application of each of the four indices to the country data and the resulting classification of households into quintiles of SES were compared across several assessment criteria. No single method out-performed the others across all the assessment criteria. However, the CATPCA method performed better in terms of the proportion of variance explained by the first principal component and the stability of the solution. The results showed that for all methods, SES was not evenly distributed across the sample populations for the countries analysed. This violates the assumption of uniformity implied when using quintiles as classification cut-off points. As an alternate to the quintile split cluster analysis was applied to the SES scores derived for each country. The classification of households into SES groups was repeated using k-means cluster analysis of the household SES scores estimated by the CATPCA method for each country. The results showed that a greater proportion of households fell into relatively lower levels of SES, which is in contrast to the assumption of uniformity of SES made when using the quintile cut-off approach. Cluster analysis better reflected the clustered nature of the household data analysed in this study, compared to the quintile cut-off method. In a final analysis, the index of SES along with k-means cluster analysis was applied to household data from two different time periods for five African countries to determine whether the resilience measure was able to detect changes in household SES between the two periods and, therefore, whether the tool could be used to monitor changes in household resilience over time. The results showed evidence of adjustments in SES over time: there were differences in the per cent of households allocated to the clusters of SES between the two periods. Using the CATPCA index and k-means cluster analysis, Egypt, Uganda and Mali showed an increase in the per cent of 'poor' households, while for Kenya and Tanzania there was a reduction in the per cent of households allocated to the first cluster between time periods: the decrease for Kenya from 2003 to 2008 was as much as 13 percentage points. The observed changes in SES were then compared to changes in national poverty estimates reported in the literature. The resilience score developed in the study displayed an ability to track changes in household SES over time and could be used as a measure of progress towards improved household resilience. As such, the resilience measure could be valuable to policy-makers for monitoring the impacts of policies aimed at improving household resilience. Future research is recommended before the reliability of the resilience measure developed here can be fully ascertained. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

This study describes the characteristics of informal economy workers and their households. The central reasons for initiating the study were twofold. Firstly, the informal economy has grown in size and it is increasingly recognised as an important component of the economy. Secondly, it is widely agreed that accurate measurement of the informal economy has not been achieved. Thus, the study aimed to describe the informal economy using the most up-to-date national labour force survey as well as assess how accurately the informal economy has been measured with that instrument. The informal economy has developed as a result of globalisation and the technological revolution (amongst other factors) according to researchers. Recognition that workers within the informal economy (and those subject to informalisation within the formal economy) are not achieving fair labour standards has led to efforts to re-conceptualise work. The informal economy is extremely difficult to define and four conceptual models are described in this study. Each of the models agrees that the informal economy operates outside the ambit of formal activities, thus a form of dualism is defined, and that the economy is heterogeneous in character. The models differ in how the informal economy interrelates with the formal economy; the dualist model proposes there is no interaction while the legalist model states that a superior-subordinate relationship exists between the two. Competing models view the informal economy as either survivalist or as a vibrant, productive entity. A notable characteristic of the informal economy is flexibility in working conditions. This study will contribute to debate on the nature and measurement of the informal economy in South Africa. The method used in this study was secondary analysis of the Labour Force Survey. Integrating elements of theory and measurement, it is suggested that the design of the survey instrument reinforces the dualist model. Analysis revealed that different economies - formal and informal - occur and that, although the two are not mutually exclusive, these exhibit markedly different characteristics. The formal worker and his or her household showed significantly better statistics for a range of demographic, social and economic indicators. Formal employees enjoyed better quality employment relationships than informal workers, as demonstrated by higher proportions in permanent employment and longer duration of employment. Measurement of an interrelationship between the formal and informal economies was hampered by the design of the survey instrument, however, there is evidence that a relationship does exist and this was defined as superior-subordinate in nature. The heterogeneous nature of the informal economy was confirmed by example of a wide range of occupations, involving varied levels of skill. Generally, the South African informal economy appears to be survivalist in nature, as demonstrated by high frequencies of workers in occupations of low skill as well as by the general poverty and low standard of living exhibited by the informal workers' household. It was recognised that there are categories of worker who are worse off than the informal worker and this finding, along with the observation that disparities exist between different types of worker within the informal economy itself, raises the question of how useful it is to use the dualist framework for analysis. Informal workers did report higher levels of flexibility, however, it is argued that this would not compensate for poor statistics recorded for nearly all other indicators measured. Based on the analysis above, it is suggested that the informal worker 'formalise' if this path is made possible because it is clear that formal workers achieve a significantly better standard of living. In the long term this goal could be achieved by improving education levels and by facilitating access to the formal economy. In the short to medium term the outlook for the informal worker could be improved by adopting policies that foster improved work conditions, including improved access to medical aid, paid leave, and some form of pension or retirement plan. The study concludes that measurement of the informal economy is more accurate than past attempts, but that further improvement is possible. Given the disparities within the informal work force and the idea that a dualist approach is not the most effective conceptualisation of the labour force, the study calls for a flexible survey instrument that caters for various definitions of the informal worker. The inclusion of additional questions, for example to measure workers' perceptions of exploitation and satisfaction with working conditions, is encouraged. These suggestions would facilitate effective investigation of alternative conceptualisations of the informal economy through means of the survey instrument. / Thesis (M.Dev. Studies)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

The thesis considers two pertinent questions about poverty in Fiji. One is about the accuracy of the poverty measures calculated by the concerned organisations and this relates to the use of equivalence scales and the general style of analysis. The other more intricate question is the disregard for poverty due to intra-family distribution asymmetries. Such miscalculations of poverty arise due use of average household per capita expenditure to represent consumption. This research attempts to answer the question of whether the tendency to underestimate the incidence of poverty by disregarding intra-family inequality is significant. Furthermore, it attempts to determine the causes of these inequalities. The issue is whether the classical method of data analysis (using the family as a unit) is the ideal way of analysing poverty and distribution in societies where large family structures exist and government relief remains minimal. To determine the household inequalities, household expenditures have been disaggregated into individualised expenditures. The individualised consumption expenditure is analysed and compared with the outcomes of aggregate household expenditure data. The analysis provides overwhelming evidence for underestimation of poverty when household consumption expenditures are used.

The thesis considers two pertinent questions about poverty in Fiji. One is about the accuracy of the poverty measures calculated by the concerned organisations and this relates to the use of equivalence scales and the general style of analysis. The other more intricate question is the disregard for poverty due to intra-family distribution asymmetries. Such miscalculations of poverty arise due use of average household per capita expenditure to represent consumption. This research attempts to answer the question of whether the tendency to underestimate the incidence of poverty by disregarding intra-family inequality is significant. Furthermore, it attempts to determine the causes of these inequalities. The issue is whether the classical method of data analysis (using the family as a unit) is the ideal way of analysing poverty and distribution in societies where large family structures exist and government relief remains minimal. To determine the household inequalities, household expenditures have been disaggregated into individualised expenditures. The individualised consumption expenditure is analysed and compared with the outcomes of aggregate household expenditure data. The analysis provides overwhelming evidence for underestimation of poverty when household consumption expenditures are used.

Univ., Diss.--Hohenheim, 2004.

La mobilité quotidienne est au cœur des réflexions sur la durabilité des villes. Moyen de réaliser ses activités quotidiennes et clé de voute des relations sociales, ses aspects économiques, et notamment ce que doivent dépenser les ménages pour se déplacer, sont un enjeu actuel majeur.Cette thèse propose une réflexion sur les interactions entre forme urbaine et mobilité quotidienne au travers du prisme des dépenses de mobilité. Pour questionner ces interactions, deux méthodes sont utilisées, indissociables l’une de l’autre.La première méthode consiste à acquérir une compréhension des effets de l’environnement construit du lieu de résidence sur le budget mobilité des ménages. Les données présentes dans les Enquêtes Ménages Déplacements sont particulièrement adaptées à cet exercice, car elles contiennent une richesse d’information importante sur les individus ainsi que leur mobilité,équipements, opinions et lieu d’habitation. Le terrain d’étude de ce travail est l’aire urbaine de Lyon, qui abrite une grande diversité de territoires et de modes de transport et où sont disponibles de nombreuses bases de données.Tout d’abord, une typologie de territoires a été construite, basée sur les principaux déterminants de la mobilité : densité, iversité, design, accessibilité aux destinations, distance aux transports collectifs et démographie. Ensuite, un cadre d’analyse systémique des relations entre forme urbaine et mobilité quotidienne a été élaboré afin d’identifier trois indicateurs qui permettent de les appréhender : la motorisation, le choix modal et les distances parcourues par modes. La typologiede territoires se révèle fortement explicative sur ces trois indicateurs. Une analyse des évolutions des mobilités entre 1995 et 2015 permet également d’identifier de nouveaux enjeux liés à l’évolution des prix, des comportements et de la démographie.Ce questionnement est ensuite prolongé à travers l’expression et la mesure des mécanismes d’intervention des caractéristiques du lieu de résidence sur le budget mobilité. A l’aide de la technique des modèles d’équations structurelles, les chemins causaux existant entre la forme urbaine locale et le budget mobilité sont explicités. Cette méthode est appliquée sur différentespopulations et types de territoires – ménages actifs puis retraités sur l’agglomération de Lyon puis sur les territoires périurbains – afin d’acquérir une compréhension fine du budget mobilité des ménages.La seconde méthode consiste à tester diverses organisations morphologiques et fonctionnelles du territoire à l’échelle du bassin de vie, afin de mesurer les effets sur le budget mobilité des ménages. Ce travail est réalisé à l’aide d’un modèle d’interaction transport-urbanisme, SIMBAD, qui permet de conduire une analyse systémique et multi-échelles des effets de la forme urbaine sur le budget mobilité. Divers scénarios de forme urbaine sont simulés, participant ainsi au débat sur la durabilité des formes urbaine monocentrique compacte, étalée diffuse et polycentrique dans une logique de Transit Oriented Development.Par ailleurs, les enseignements de la première méthode, c’est-à-dire le traitement des Enquêtes Ménages Déplacements pour étudier les effets de la forme urbaine locale sur le budget mobilité, nous incitent à conduire une analyse multi-échelles des résultats des simulations : une réflexion sur la différenciation des impacts selon l’organisation du territoire et selon le lieu de résidence à l’intérieur de l’aire urbaine est ainsi menée.Ce travail de thèse apporte donc à la fois des éléments méthodologiques pour analyser les interactions entre forme urbaine et budget mobilité, avec la construction de modèles d’équations structurelles et l’usage d’un modèle d’interaction transport-urbanisme dans un objectif de simulation, ainsi que divers résultats et éclairages qui viennent prolonger la littérature scientifiqueexistante. / Daily mobility is at the heart of debate on urban sustainability. A mean to carry out our daily activities and a key to social interactions, economic aspects and especially household expenditures linked to mobility are a major current issue.This thesis proposes a discussion on the interactions between urban form and daily mobility through mobility expenditures. Two interrelated methods of analysis are used to investigate these interactions.The first one relies on a comprehensive understanding of the effects of the built environment on daily mobility budgets. Household surveys are especially suited to this analysis because they provide a wealth of information on individuals’ attributes, their mobility, equipment, opinions and housing characteristics. Combined with various local or national databases, it is possible to estimate a household budget for every surveyed household. The case study for this analysis is the Lyon urban area. It contains very different built environments, and hosts a diverse array of transport modes. Furthermore, numerous databases are available for our analysis.First, we build a typology of territories based on the main daily mobility determinants: density, diversity, design, accessibility to destinations, distance to transit and demography. Then, an analytical framework of relations between urban form and daily mobility is built to identify three indicators to apprehend them: motorization, modal choice and distance per mode. This typology of territories is tested on these three indicators and appears to be highly significant. An analysis of the mobility evolution between 1995 and 2015 also identify various new issues related to prices, behavioral and demographic evolutionsThis line of questioning is extended through the identification and quantification of the effects of built environment characteristics on household mobility budgets. Using a Structural Equation Modelling method, causal paths between local urban form and household expenditures are presented. This method is applied to different types of population and territories – workers and retired households of the Lyon agglomeration then on the same types in suburban areas – in order to understand householdmobility budgets.The second method consists of testing various morphological and functional organizations of the territory in order to measure their effects on daily mobility budgets. This work is conducted using a land use and interaction model (LUTI), SIMBAD, which allows us to conduct a systemic and multiscale analysis of urban form on daily mobility budgets. Different scenarios of urban form are thereafter simulated, contributing to the debate on the durability of monocentric, sprawled or polycentric citiesin a Transit Oriented Development urban form. Besides, lessons learned from data processing of Households Surveys encourage us to conduct a multiscale analysis. A discussion on the differentiation of impacts depending on the global form of the territory is conducted.This thesis work presents innovative methodological elements to analyze the interactions between urban form and mobility budgets, including the construction of structural equations models and the use of a LUTI model to simulate urban environments. It also offers novel results, which contribute to the current scientific literature.