Two developments that may impact house prices have dominated the residential property landscape in South Africa in recent years, namely government’s planned social housing developments and residential property value assessments carried out by local municipalities across South Africa for property tax purposes. Social housing developments are often plagued by “local opposition”, who argue that subsidised housing units may have a negative effect on adjacent non-subsidised residential housing. Negative preconceptions of social housing form the basis of this argument, which is commonly referred to as the “not-in-my-backyard” (NIMBY) syndrome. International studies conducted have, however, produced mixed results with some concluding that social housing developments lead to a reduction in nearby property prices, whilst others conclude that they lead to an improvement in surrounding property values. Currently, the state of the South African economy and demographics are limiting previously disadvantaged, poor peoples’ access to affordable and safe housing, and for this reason the basis of the NIMBY rationale deserves closer attention. In order to test the validity of the NIMBY rationale, this study examines, by means of the hedonic price method, the effect of an existing housing establishment catering for low-income earners (the Walmer/Gqebera Township) on adjacent property values in the suburb of Walmer, Port Elizabeth, Nelson Mandela Bay in the Eastern Cape. The study concludes that the low-cost housing development exerts a negative impact on the property values of nearby houses - the average owner of a non-subsidised residential property in Walmer would be willing to pay between R38 033 and R46 898 to be situated 200 metres further away from the Walmer Township. This conclusion is subject to three qualifications. The first is that the Walmer Township is not a recognised social housing development but merely a proxy for one. The second qualification is that a relatively small data set was used in this study and only one social housing development was considered. The third qualification is that the study period is from 1995 to 2009, which necessitated the adjustment of market prices to constant 2009 rands. For this purpose, data from the Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage section of the ABSA house price indices were used. It was not possible to disaggregate the indices further to obtain a Walmer-specific index. It is possible that an imperfect correlation exists between the Walmer property trend and the metropolitan (Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage) trend used in this study. Based on the results of this doctoral investigation it is recommended that a monthly rebate on property rates of between R269.40 and R332.19 be implemented for affected Walmer residents. This amount could be sufficient to mitigate the capital loss associated with proximity to the Walmer Township. In terms of the management of social housing projects, it is strongly recommended that the following occur in order to alleviate the NIMBY syndrome: existing dwellings should be renovated, tenants should be monitored, dwellings should be appropriately designed and maintained, the composition of the host neighbourhood should be assessed and the image of social housing should be improved. With regard to the renovation of dwellings, social housing site preference should be given to existing structures in need of renovation, as positive externalities are associated with the renovation of such properties. The monitoring of tenants needs to take place in order to ensure that the financial and behavioural obligations of the tenants are met, and that informal “shack dwellings” do not materialise on site, and finally, that tenant default rates remain low. The appropriate management of these projects will also aid in combating the perception that social housing developments lead to private residential property devaluation. In respect of residential property value assessments, many homeowners have recently argued that there is very little equivalence between the municipality’s valuations and true market values. This study uses, inter alia, the hedonic price model to investigate the accuracy of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality’s 2007/2008 valuation roll. The investigation was limited to the valuation roll applicable to the Walmer neighbourhood. The study finds that there is, on average, a 13.89 percent difference between market prices and the 2007/2008 municipal assessed values. In addition, this study finds that an attributebased hedonic price model produces property price predictions that are more in line with true market values. This finding is subject to two qualifications. The first qualification is that only the Walmer neighbourhood’s assessed values were considered, thus limiting the findings. The second qualification is that a relatively small data set was used.

In the past years the government has been giving speeches and promises to South African Residents about housings for all but this is still a challenge. This is problematic for the township Joe Slovo in the sense that more than one third of the population live in small, unsafe shacks. It is evident that many suffer from the slow delivery of houses and many residents are affected negatively in the struggle for proper housing.

Thesis (PhD (Public Management and Planning))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The principal question this study aims to answer is why and how a left-of-centre government not hobbled by heavy external leverage, with developmental state precedents, potentially positive macroeconomic fundamentals, and well-developed alternative policies for housing and urban reconstruction came to settle on a conservative housing policy founded on ‘precepts of the pre-democratic period’. Arguably, this policy is even more conservative than World Bank strictures and paradigms, whose advice the incoming democratic government ‘normally ignored’ and ‘tacitly rejected’. The study, which spans the period from the early 1990s to 2007, commences from the premise that housing is an expression and component of a society’s wider development agenda and is bound up with daily routines of the ordering and institutionalisation of social existence and social reproduction. It proposes an answer that resides in the mechanics and modalities of post-apartheid state construction and its associated techniques and technologies of societal penetration and regime legitimisation. The vagaries and vicissitudes of post-Cold War statecraft, the weight of history and legacy, strategic blundering, and the absence of a cognitive map and compass to guide post-apartheid statecraft, collectively contribute to past and present defects and deformities of our two decade-old developmentalism, writ large in our human settlements. Alternatives to the technocratic market developmentalism of our current housing praxis spotlight empowering shelter outcomes but were bastardised. This is not unrelated to the toxicity of mixing conservative governmentalities (neoliberal macroeconomic precepts, modernist planning orientations, supply-side citizenship and technocratic projections of state) with ‘ambiguated’ counter-governmentalities (self-empowerment, self-responsibilisation, the aestheticisation of poverty and heroic narratives about the poor). Underscored in the study is the contention that state developmentalism and civil society developmentalism rise and fall together, pivoting on (savvy) reconnection of economics and politics (the vertical axis of governance) and state and society (the horizontal axis). Without robust reconfiguration and recalibration of axes, the revamped or, more appropriately, reconditioned housing policy – Breaking New Ground – struggles to navigate the limitations of the First Decade settlement state shelter delivery regime and the Second Decade’s (weak) developmental state etho-politics. The prospects for success are contingent on structurally rewiring inherited and contemporary contacts and circuits of power, influence and money in order to tilt resource and institutional balances in favour of the poor. Present pasts and present futures, both here and abroad, offer resources for more transformative statecraft and sustainable human settlements, but only if we are prepared to challenge the underlying economic and political interests that to date have, and continue to, preclude such policies. History, experience and contemporary record show there are alternatives – another possible and necessary world – via small and large steps, millimetres and centimetres, trial and error. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die hoof vraag wat hierdie studie probeer beantwoord is hoekom en hoe dit gekom het dat ʼn links-van-die-middel regering wat nie gekniehalter was deur gewigtige, eksterne invloede nie; en met ontwikkelingstaat presedente [of voorbeelde]; potensieel positiewe makro-ekonomiese grondbeginsels, en goed ontwikkelde alternatiewe beleide vir behuising en stedelike herontwikkeling, gevestig [of vasgesteek] het op ʼn konserwatiewe behuisingbeleid, gegrond op ‘voorskrifte van die voor-demokratiese tydperk’. Die beleid is, aanvegbaar, selfs meer konserwatief as ongunstige Wêreld Bank voorskrifte en paradigmas, wie se advies die inkomende demokratiese regering oënskynlik geïgnoreer en stilswyend verwerp het. Die studie, wat strek oor die periode vanaf die vroeë 1990s tot 2007, begin met die aanname dat behuising ʼn uitdrukking en komponent van ʼn gemeenskap se wyer ontwikkelingsagenda is, en saamgebind is met die daaglikse roetine van die ordening en institusionalisering van maatskaplike bestaan en maatskaplike reproduksie. ʼn Antwoord word voorgestel wat berus op die meganika en modaliteite van na-apartheid staatskonstruksie en die meegaande tegnieke en tegnologieë van sosiale penetrasie en regeringstelsel legitimering. Die giere en wisselvallighede van Na-Koue Oorlog staatkunde, die gewig van geskiedenis en nalatingskap, strategiese foute en die afwesigheid van ʼn bewuste kaart en kompas om na-apartheid staatkunde te lei, het gesamentlik bygedra tot die vorige en teenwoordige gebreke en misvormings van ons twee dekade-oue ontwikkelings-isme (‘developmentalism’), groot geskryf in ons menslike nedersettings. Alternatiewe tot die tegnokratiese mark ontwikkelings-isme (‘developmentalism’), van ons huidige behuisingspraktyk, plaas die kollig op bemagtigende skuiling uitkomstes, maar was verbaster. Dit is nie onverwant aan die giftigheid van die meng van konserwatiewe goewermentaliteite (‘governmentalities’) (neoliberale makro-ekonomiese voorskrifte, modernistiese beplannings orientasies, verskaf-kant burgerskap en tegnokratiese projeksies van staat) met teenstrydige teen-goewermentaliteite (‘governmentalities’) (self-bemagtiging, self-verantwoordlikheid (‘self-responsibility’), die estetifikasie (aestheticisation’) van armoede en heldhaftige vertellings omtrent die armes). Onderstreep in die studie is die bewering dat staatsontwikkelings-isme (‘developmentalism’) en siviele gemeenskapsontwikkelings-isme (‘developmentalism’) saam klim en val, en wat roteer om (kundige) herkonneksie van die ekonomie en politiek (die vertikale as van regeerkunde) en staat en gemeenskap (die horisontale as). Sonder robuuste herkonfigurasie en herkalibrering van die asse, sukkel die opgedateerde, of amper her-kondisioneerde behuisingsbeleid – Breaking New Ground – om die limiete van die Eerste Dekade nedersetting staat skuiling leweringstelsel en die Tweede Dekade se (swak) ontwikkelende staat eto-politiek, te navigeer. Die verwagtinge vir sukses is gebaseer op strukturele herbedrading van oorgeërfde en eietydse kontakte en stroombane van mag, invloed en geld, op so ʼn wyse dat hulpbronne en institusionele balans ten gunste van die armes gekantel word. Teenwoordige verledes en teenwoordige toekomste, beide hier en oorsee, bied hulpbronne vir meer transformerende staatkunde en volhoubare menslike nedersettings, maar slegs indien ons bereid is om die onderliggende ekonomies en politiese belange uit te daag, wat tot op datum en nog steeds voortgaan om sodanige beleide te verhinder. Geskiedenis, ondervinding en eietydse rekords, moet wakker bly vir alternatiewe – ʼn ander moontlike en noodsaaklike wêreld – via klein en groot stappe, millimeters en sentimeters, tref of fouteer.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis sets out to explore housing co-operatives as an alternative housing delivery mechanism in South Africa. This is done by critically examining the housing policy post 1994, as well as the various mechanisms government implemented in an attempt to manage the service delivery within the housing sector. The thesis also explores the role that co-operatives played in South Africa’s history and draws some historical comparisons in relation to the establishment of housing co-operatives internationally and locally. In exploring the various types of housing co-operatives, insights emerge about their structure, potential and limitations. The thesis examines the themes of public service delivery and explores possible alternatives to the failing traditional model of public service delivery. The thesis focuses on the experiences and perceptions that South Africans have with regards to local government process in housing service delivery. The thesis concludes that local government should play an active role in creating more collaborative partnerships; one that focuses on training and facilitating the efforts of civil society to establish entities such as housing cooperatives. This requires a fundamental shift in the manner in which local government approaches service delivery in the housing sector. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis het ten doel behuisings kooperatiewe te verken as ’n alternatiewe behuisingsmeganisme in Suid-Afrika. Dit is gedoen deur n kritiese ondersoek van die behuisingsbeleid na 1994, sowel as die verskeie meganismes wat die regering probeer implementeer het in ’n poging om die dienslewering binne die behuisingsektor te beheer. Die tesis ondersoek die rol wat koöperatiewe gespeel het in Suid-Afrika se geskiedenis en het ’n historiese vergelyking gemaak met betrekking tot die stigting van behuisingskoöperatiewe op internasionale sowel as op plaaslike vlak. In die tesis van die verskillende tiepe behuising koöperasies het sekere ideas na vore gekom ten opsigte van hul struktuur, potensiaal en beperkinge. Die tesis ondersoek die temas van publieke dienslewering en het ook na die alternatiewe gekyk ten opsigte van publieke dienslewering. Die tesis fokus op die ervarings en persepsies van Suid- Afrikaners met betrekking tot die plaaslike regering se proses van behuisings dienslewering. Die tesis word afgesluit met voorstelle waarin plaaslike regering 'n aktiewe rol speel in die skepping van meer samewerkende vennootskappe, een wat fokus op die opleiding en die fasilitering waarin pogings van die burgerlike samelewing entiteite tot stand bring soos byvoorbeeld behuising koöperasies. Dit vereis ’n fundamentele verandering in die wyse waarop plaaslike regering dienslewering benader in die behuisingsektor.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the inclusionary housing policy (IHP), a concept introduced to incorporate the private sector in actively contributing to the delivery of affordable housing as a by-product of higher income housing delivery, in an effort to promote socio-economic integration and to eradicate informal housing by 2014. The IHP stipulates that between 0% to 30% of new residential developments, measured in units, need to be inclusionary in nature. This means that a unit may be sold from R50,000 to R350,000 or rented for R600 to R3,000 per month to beneficiaries earning between R1,500 and R7,500 gross income per month. The policy will be implemented in a phased manner with two complimentary strategies, namely the town planning compliant approach and the Voluntary pro-active deal driven approach. To off set financial burdens, the government has made available six incentives and the concepts of off site compliance and inclusionary stock credits. The national government has set the requirements and parameters of the inclusionary elements and based on this a number of the possible effects that this IHP might have on residential developments, when looking at the interactions of supply, demand and price,were discussed as well as the views of industry experts. Inclusionary housing will result in social benefits but unwanted social costs as well. Benefits and costs were discussed and even though this policy is not Pareto efficient, based on the Kaldor-Hicks criterion, it is efficient in that the members of society that are made worse off can be compensated by the beneficiaries due to the fact that surrounding property prices that may rise and developers get incentives they would otherwise not have had access to. This study also looked internationally at the key success factors that were identified in case studies focussing on the United States of America, United Kingdom, Malaysia and China. From this international study, recommendations were made for South Africa's IHP. Because of various cultures and economies, success factors can not purely be copied but the recommendations should add to sustainable inclusionary developments. Ad hoc recommendations, also inferred from international lessons learnt, were discussed briefly and based on the above findings and recommendations, the accusations made by industry experts were readdressed. Although some areas still remain grey, many were found to be questionable. No concrete inferences can be made from this study pertaining to the supply, demand or price of residential developments but the following predictions can be made. The IHP is not necessarily going to drive property prices down and the requirements may be accepted by higher income households and therefore socio-economic integration may be successful in South Africa. This is only if the policy remains in its current form and not become law. This is in order to adapt to changing external variables and to incorporate success factors as they become known; if the IHP gets implemented transparently; if suggestions are incorporated from all stakeholders i.e. beneficiaries, developers, governmental spheres and third parties such as financial institutions and if this policy is phased into the market timeously. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie fokus op die insluitende behuising beleid (IBB), 'n konsep wat bekend gestel is om die privaat sektor aktief betrokke te maak by die voorsiening van lae koste behuising as 'n by-produk van die voorsiening van hoër inkomste behuising in 'n poging om sosio-ekonomiese integrasie te bevorder en informele behuising teen 2014 te verwyder. Die IBB bepaal dat tussen 0% en 30% van nuwe residensiële ontwikkelings, gemeet in eenhede, insluitend van aard moet wees wat beteken dat eenhede vir tussen R50,OOO tot R300,000 verkoop en verhuur vir tussen R600 en R3,000 per maand aan begunstigdes wat tussen R1,000 tot R7,000 bruto inkomste per maand verdien. Die beleid sal trapsgewys toegepas word met twee komplimentêre strategieë naamlik 'n vrywillige pro-aktiewe gedrewe benadering en 'n dorpsbeplanning voldoeningsbenadering. Om finansiële belassings te voorkom het die regering ses aansporingsbonusse beskikbaar gestel en die konsepte van lewering op ander land en insluitende handels krediete. Die nasionale regering het die vereistes en limiete van die insluitende elemente bepaal en gegrond op dit is 'n aantal van die moontlike uitkomste, wat die IBB op residensiële ontikkelings mag hê, gegrond op die interaksie tussen aanbod, vraag en prys, bespreek asook die sieninge van sektor deskundiges. Insluitende behuising sal sosiale voordele en ongewenste sosiale nadele tot gevolg het. Voordele en nadele was bespreek en alhoewel die beleid nie Pareto optimaal is nie is dit effektief gegrond op die Kaldor-Hicks kriterium deurdat die lede van die samelewing wat slegter af gemaak word, gekompenseer kan word deur die begunstigdes deur eiendomspryse wat kan styg en ontwikkelaars wat aansporingbonusse ontvang wat hulle andersins nie toegang tot sou gehad het nie. Die studie het ook internasionaal gekyk na sukses faktore wat geidentifiseer was deur te kyk na gevalle studies wat gedoen is in Verenigde State van Amerika, Verenigde Koningkryk, Maleisië en China. Aanbevelings vir Suid-Afrika se ISS, algelei van die internasionale gevalle studies, is gemaak. As gevolg van verskillende kulture en ekonomiese faktore kan sukses faktore nie bloot gedupliseer word nie maar die aanbevelings behoort by te dra tot volhoubare insluitende ontwikkelings.

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / One of the serious problems facing South Africa is that of the provision of adequate low-cost housing for its people. According to Statistics South Africa (2009), 56% of South Africans lived in fully-owned formal dwellings in 2009. Not only does it seem impossible to work away the backlogs, but problems with the standard of construction, location and continuing urbanisation adds to the challenge. International commitments such as the UN’s Millennium Goals put further pressure on government to permanently resolve the issue. Adequate housing is recognised globally as a basic human right. This includes access to running water and sanitation and a safe environment. This study does not aim to investigate, in any way, construction techniques, specific choices of location or other planning-related issues. However, it does try to find a more successful approach to the challenge of the provision of housing given the already stated challenges, combined with, amongst others, the provision of the necessary financing and relevant political processes. The provision of low-cost housing is a wicked problem. This means that it has certain characteristics, including being unique in character and can never be fully resolved. However, within futures studies, systems theory is recognised as one of the more successful ways to address wicked problems. By investigating low-cost housing programmes in Brazil, Argentina and Peru and identifying the elements of systems theory used, it was possible to find pointers to help formulate a set of steps (or actions) to use to address South Africa’s low-cost housing challenge. This research report proposes that, while the challenge of housing provision in a country like South Africa will most probably always be present, it can be alleviated by applying systems thinking to the problem.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / Having inherited a huge housing shortage from the previous apartheid regime, the government of the newly liberated Republic of South Africa embarked on an ambitious programme to resolve the problem, as was required of it by its constitution. The government’s approach was (and is) to offer a once-off subsidy, which has become increasingly generous over the years, to qualifying households. Twenty years later, some three million dwelling units have been built, but there remains a shortfall of some two million houses, which is growing annually. Having regard to the size of the problem and the fact that it is growing despite Herculean efforts on the part of the government, it is clear that intervention by the private sector and civil society is required. The private sector, however, is constrained by the fact that profitability in the affordable housing market is small. In the absence of reasonable profit margins, and in the context of the fact that there is a dire need for adequate shelter, the question arises why corporations who have a long history of donating to social causes, do not allocate more of their corporate social investment budgets to organisations involved with the problem? The answer is that the need is for a private good that is already receiving significant government support, with the result that corporate social investment is crowded out. In addition, corporations are increasingly recognising the need to align their social investment strategies with their business strategies. This is not happening in the housing context partly because corporations are struggling to conceptualise the relationship between the two strategies, and partly because there is no framework within which to do so. Corporate social investment strategies are meaningful and justifiable when they open new markets and opportunities for the company. Successful human settlements exist where economic and social opportunities are integrated seamlessly. Should the government’s housing policy use the principle of integration as a point of departure, it could encourage corporations to channel moneys to social causes. The ideal vehicles for the corporations to employ in such endeavours are social enterprises, because these are non-profit organisations that are managed in a business-like manner. They bring focus to the investment and assurances that moneys are spent well, and their entrepreneurial approach makes them self-sustaining over time.

Thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of the Built Environment in Housing to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, School of Architecture and Planning at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2017 / The research report is based on the complex nature of land registration within a township establishment process in South Africa. Post 1994 democratic government have placed a great emphasis on land tenure security. Therefore it becomes crucial for government departments to identify, acquire and expropriate land for the provision of affordable integrated human settlements. The political drive for low income housing developments results in community pressured projects, disregarding the opening of a township register which enables individual title transfers. Several townships established on municipal owned land are incomplete wherein the General Plan is approved but not registered at the deeds office, hampering deed of transfers to allocated beneficiaries. Land exchanges, employer housing allowance, family inheritance and insurance contracts necessitate land ownership declaration. The various land tenure security approaches are explored and argued for formal recognition since they have been proven to be working successfully in other parts of the world. / XL2018

Thesis (Master of Environmental Management)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Over the past decades, environmental problems associated with low-cost housing developments have been reported on a national and global scale (see Sowman and Urquhart, 1998 and also Norville, 2003). Poor community participation in the early stages of project design and lack of public involvement in decision making regarding low cost housing development are said to have contributed to these environmental issues. The environmental issues that have been reported so far relate to escalating water quality due to poor storm water management and improper waste disposal which poses a threat to the natural environment. While there is as emerging view that the nature of environmental problems experienced in these settlements are due to a lack of participation by local people in decision making, there is virtual no studies that have located this analysis within the theoretical debate of modernist planning. The issue that has been ignored thus far is the fact that low cost housing development (in generally) still resembles the spatial pattern of both the modernist and apartheid planning orthodox. It is thus from this context that the local people are increasingly excluded from participating in decision making. This form of modernist development is contrary to the ethos of sustainable development. In essence, sustainable development, as a new development theory, also adheres to the notion of local citizenry involvement in development for the benefits of the future generation. The research study further argues that poor people need to participate in decision making regarding the design and delivery of these houses (Oelefse, 1997). Therefore, the study investigated the underlying environmental implications associated with informal economic activities in a low cost housing establishment. The research study adopted a qualitative research design and an inductive approach. Dunoon was used as a case study for the research. The study used two sampling techniques, purposive sampling and random sampling,were used. Interviews, questionnaires and observations were used to collect data from the residents, informal businesses in Dunoon and key stakeholders from the Department of Environmnental Affairs as well as City of Cape Town. The findings of the thesis illustrate that long-term environmental impacts that are visible in the low-cost housing development of Dunoon are triggered by informal economic activities that are practised by the local people to make a living. In this regard, this thesis argues that local people need to be involved in the early planning and design stages of low-cost housing development. They need to be involved in all development stages to ensure that they drive the vision of the development. Lack of involvement of the local people in the initial stages of decision-making on the project triggered severe long term environmental impacts. The study then concludes that long-term environmental impacts in Dunoon are intertwined with the escalation of informal economic activities initiated by the local people in order to cope with harsh economic realities. These informal activities are a form of reaction to the imposed version of development. Thus, the environmental problems that emerged out of this pattern of human activities must be analysed by means of conceptualising the Dunoon low-cost housing as a product of modernist planning philosophy. Based on the information gathered and discussed in this thesis, it is concluded that the low-cost housing development is a product of modernist planning.

This research investigates the impacts of construction skills acquired by the beneficiaries who participated in the construction of housing in the three case studies used in this study; the housing policy also assumes such a connection. The study argues that the construction skills can assist training beneficiaries to acquire sustainable employment in the housing construction industry. The housing beneficiaries have however experienced the problem of being unable to make further housing completion due to various problems such as unemployment, low income, regulations and building standards. Therefore, the study also assumes that housing construction industry has a potentially pivotal role to play in providing sustainable employment to the training beneficiaries, which In turn allow them to generate income for housing improvements. The study uses two core-housing approaches (incremental and enabling), which emphasises the importance of construction skills to the training beneficiaries and are relevant to the South African Housing Policy. This study argues that the Housing Policy has a crucial role to play in construction skills acquisition during the construction of incremental housing projects. This study investigates the relationship among skills, employment and housing improvements of Hambanati, Mshayazafe and Waterloo areas in KwaZulu-Natal. A research In this study has been conducted for the purpose of highlighting realities regarding the impact of acquiring relevant construction skills through incremental housing projects. The research will enable the study to inform the government's current housing policy about the potential benefits of providing construction skills in the delivery of incremental housing. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, 2003.