Data sets commonly used in the social sciences are often obtained by sample surveys with complex designs. These designs usually incorporate a multistage selection from a population with a natural hierarchical structure. In addition, these surveys can also be carried out in a repeated manner including a rotating panel design, which is a source of planned non-response. Unplanned non-response is also present in panel data in the form of panel attrition and intermittent nonresponse. Methods are developed to handle this type of data complexity. These methods follow the Multilevel Model framework which is reviewed. Longitudinal growth curve models accounting for the complex data hierarchy are tted. Recognizing the need to account for the complex correlation structure present in the data, multivariate multilevel models are then adopted. Alternative modied correlation structures accounting for the rotating sample design are proposed. Multivariate multilevel models are tted utilizing these alternative correlation structures. In addition, models estimated using robust methods are compared with those estimated using standard methods. A method for calculating a set of longitudinal sample weights that accounts for attrition is proposed. Models utilising the conditional sample weights and longitudinal weights are tted using the Probability-weighted Iterative Generalized Least Squares (PWIGLS) estimation method. Furthermore, an extension to PWIGLS for multivariate multilevel models is developed. Models tted through dierent estimation methods are compared and the best approaches are suggested. Data from the Brazilian labour force survey, Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego (PME) are used. The PME has a complex sampling design that includes a multistage selection of the sample units and a rotating panel design characterised as 4-8-4. The methods developed are used to investigate the labour income dynamics of employed heads of households in the PME survey.

This study investigates the role of social-problem solving and social support as mediators and moderators of the relationship between stressful life events and adjustment, experienced by young students in Saudi Arabia. The study sample involved 630 college students and 390 high school students. Both qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used. Semi-structured interviews (Chapter 4) conducted with twelve university students showed that the chief problems that the students experienced were mainly interpersonal and personal. Students reported that they used a rational problem solving style and avoidance; rather than other styles. Translation and modification of original western cultural measures, testing psychometric properties and finding new factors of the translated scales was undertaken (Chapter 5 and 6). Reliability and validity for all the scales were acceptable. The Life Satisfaction of Young Saudi Women scale was specifically developed for the current study, and proved a reliable and valid means of assessing the populations. The empirical investigation contained two related studies (Chapter 7 and 8), using self-completion questionnaires administered to both populations. They showed that dysfunctional social-problem solving dimensions partially mediated the stress-distress relationship in both samples. Social support was found to partially mediate stress-life satisfaction only in university students. However it was found to partially mediate stress-distress relationships in the school sample. In terms of moderating effects, path analysis results showed that the path representing dysfunctional socialproblem solving dimensions significantly interacted with stress to predict a high level of distress. Results also indicated that social support moderated the relation between stress and distress in both samples. In Chapter Nine, several avenues for implication and future research are suggested in the areas of theory, measurement and applied research

The aim of this thesis is to analyse the discourses created and shaped by pro- immigration asylum-seeker advocates who were working in the Greater Southampton Area between 2006 and 2009. Through this analysis, I assess the factors shaping these discourses and seek to understand who benefits from these discourses and, ultimately, whom they harm. Adopting the approaches of both critical discourse analysis and linguistic ethnography to situate these discourses within the wider historical contexts of immigration to Southampton, I examine the socio-economic and political conditions in Britain as a country of destination, paying particular attention to British policies of immigration and refugee settlement and integration. I then concentrate on three themes that are dominant throughout these discourses and demonstrate how these themes - and the identities that they describe and go some way to shape - are created and shaped by the language in these discourses. These three themes are liminality, helplessness and mistrust. I engage in this analysis by conducting linguistic ethnography: living and working alongside the individuals I describe herein and conducting interviews with them in order to fully understand their discursive practice. I use a triangulation method that contrasts data emerging from ethnographic interviews with the critical discourse analysis of texts produced by these discourse communities. I argue that the discourses created and shaped by these discourse communities have fostered a condition in which asylum-seekers are portrayed as being helpless, preternaturally encumbered and, at the end of the day, as being a burden on the State.

Informal language learning among adults is a key aspect of wider 21 si century processes of globalization and migration (Norton 2000, Pavlenko and Blackledge 2001). This thesis reports an ethnographic case study of six adult female learners of English as a second language (L2) from different linguistic backgrounds, who have been living continuously in a southern English city for two years on average. The motivation for the study is to explore how gender, identity and social context interrelate and influence the second language learning (SLL) process. The investigation is grounded in a combination of poststructuralist theory and activity theory, with addition of two social psychological theories. Norton's (2000) concept of 'investment' is fundamental, specifically: a) for its application of some of Bourdieu's (1977) concepts to SLL; b) for its inclusion of the L2 learner's feelings and perceptions. From a methodological perspective, Engestrom's (1999) 'activity systems triangle' has been used to identify investment in SLL through activity (i .e. what the learner is doing to achieve her SLL goals and using which artifacts), as well as the social networks and relationships in which the learner is involved. Social psychological theories of identity hierarchisation have been used to further explore the relationship between identity and investment (Turner and Stets 2005) Data collection lasted nine months, and involved a) interviewing (in-depth interviews every six weeks with each of the ladies, plus an interview with their partners; b) participant observation (observations of interactions using English between each lady and others in leisure events); c) testing: Each lady took the computer-adaptive language test DIALANG (AL TE 2007) on two occasions, at the beginning and end of the data collection period. The case study documents the intersection between two sets of interrelated elements linked to the SLL process: on the one hand, the investment the ladies made to acquire English as a form of cultural capital (Bourdieu 1986), meaning their activity using the recourses available to them. Identity was also significantly involved in such processes. On the other hand, the influence of gender in their interactions with English native speakers is also documented, including the role of the participants' partners as mediators between the ladies and the social context. The results show that all the ladies made progress but to differing degrees, and this variation is explained by the interaction between the above mentioned elements

This longitudinal mixed methods study traces the request development of eight UK based students learning German in Germany and Austria. Although language socialisation was used as an underlying contextual framework, the main focus was on the development of politeness as operationalised in requests, and the factors which may have influenced this development such as the establishment of an L2 identity and membership in communities of practice (CofPs). Five participants were English native speakers, two had grown up bilingually, one speaking Croatian and English and the other Italian and Twi, and one was a French native speaker. The requests were primarily elicited in semi-structured role plays carried out with German native speakers, yet the participants were also asked to record authentic interactions in service encounter scenarios, expected to lead to the utterance of requests. The role play data, which amount to 144 role plays, were collected before, during and after the students’ stay abroad. In-sojourn, the participants were also asked to record authentic exchanges, three of which were used in the present study. In addition, the students were also interviewed pre-in-and post-sojourn (24 interviews) and were asked to fill in an online background questionnaire before going abroad and a language engagement questionnaire while they were abroad. The role plays were coded based on the CCSARP coding scheme to determine the degree of directness and of internal and external mitigation in learner requests. The authentic data were analysed with Conversation Analysis. The data show a shift towards more directness, i.e. less internal and more external mitigation in-sojourn, thus indicating an adaptation to target community specific language behaviour. However, the degree of adaptation varied partly in line with participants’ degree of awareness of differences in linguistic politeness and identification with German society, and partly in line with the extent of their engagement with local CofPs. The variables which mostly influenced the change between pre-and in-sojourn request realisations, were the awareness of differences in linguistic politeness and the successful establishment of an L2 identity. Interaction with the host-community, which did not have a noticeable influence on the general pre- to in-sojourn change data, and awareness of difference in linguistic politeness, did however impact the change in pre- to in-sojourn request variation. The CA analysis of the authentic exchanges and the corresponding role plays both show the same preference structure for requests, thus providing researchers in the field with important new validation for role play methodology.

This thesis presents three inter-related studies investigating different aspects of contraceptive use in rural Nepal. The intrauterine device (IUD) is one of the most cost effective methods of reversible contraception available but is not well known or understood and consequently not well used in Nepal. This has not always been the case, when family planning was first introduced in Nepal the IUD was the most widely used method. Over the decades its use has dwindled to a point where less than one percent of women of reproductive age use it as their preferred method of contraception. This thesis identifies the reasons behind the low use of the IUD in eastern rural Nepal, by employing qualitative methodology. These qualitative findings are then further employed to create demand for the IUD. The thesis draws attention to the various roles different routes of increasing awareness and demand for the IUD have. By creating demand it is shown that the uptake of the IUD is increased. Increasing demand alone does not equate to satisfaction with the method so the thesis points to quality of care being an important factor in high satisfaction leading to high continuation of the IUD. Male influence is shown to have an influence on the uptake of the IUD within two of the studies so a third study investigates the knowledge, attitudes and practice of Nepalese men towards family planning and reproductive health. This thesis identifies a number of factors that are influencing positive changes in Nepalese men’s knowledge, attitudes and practice that may have an effect on future contraceptive use, family planning and sexually transmitted infection rates. These changes may have an effect on fertility rates, contraceptive prevalence and levels of unmet need.

The United Kingdom (UK) ethnic population is ageing. However, there has been a dearth of research focussing on the ethnic diversity of the older population and the implications for health and health care needs. In fact ‘ageing’ and ‘ethnicity’ are rarely integrated within health research. According to the United Kingdom (UK) 2001 Census, there are over 4.6 million individuals belonging to minority ethnic groups, with a quarter million aged 50 years or over. The ageing of these communities over the next two decades places greater emphasis on the importance of empirical evidence on their health status and the policy implications for health and health care needs. This thesis contributes to our understanding of health, socio-economic status (SES), ethnicity and ageing. The research explores the ‘sensitivity’ of different measures and their appropriateness and validity in assessing health inequalities amongst ethnic minority groups in order to better understand health inequalities in later life. This is a critical issue with widespread policy implications. Using cross-sectional data from Health Survey for England (HSE), with a sample size of 5,086 men and women 50 years and older, different logistic regression models are run for the outcome variables general health and limiting long-standing illness in order to ascertain the ‘sensitivity’ of SES of the different measures of health amongst the different ethnic minority groups. The results suggest that older people from ethnic minority groups are more likely to report bad/very bad’ health compared with the White population. For example, amongst Black Africans the odds of reporting ‘bad/very bad’ health are 1.45 times the odds amongst Whites, amongst Pakistanis the equivalent odds are 1.69 times the odds amongst Whites, amongst Bangladeshi the odds are 2.34 times the odds of Whites, and amongst Chinese people the odds are 2.53 times the odds of Whites. There are distinct patterns in reporting ‘bad/very bad’ health and a LLSI amongst and between ethnic minority men and women aged 50 and over based on SES measures employed in the study. Additionally, behavioural risk factors, that is, smoking and alcohol consumption were significant predictors of reporting ‘bad/very bad’ health and LLSI. Health inequalities have important implications for policy, particularly for health and health care. The research findings would be useful in informing national policies (e.g. health promotion campaigns, housing, occupationally based services, culturally competent health care services) and locally based interventions (e.g. health campaigns for older men and women; health education) would be better targeted at ethnic minority groups of older men and women

This thesis is made up of three papers and aims to explore the higher education routes taken by British Asian women covering analyses of degree subject and institution choices. The first paper explores the subject choices of UK home applicants to undergraduate degree courses with the use of multinomial logistic regression and Universities and Colleges Admissions Services applicant data. The study finds that there are clear differences both across and within ethnic groups in terms of preferred subject choice. Overall, ethnic minority groups other than the Black Caribbean group are more likely to apply to study subjects leading to careers in the professions when compared to the White ethnic group. Differences were found within ethnic groups and these were related to socio-economic background. The second paper uses binary logistic regression analysis and HESA enrolment data for academic years 1998 and 2005 to explore (i) the decision to move out of the parental/guardian home whilst attending university and (ii) the decision to move out of one's home region conditional on the fact a student is not living in the parental home. Findings suggest that Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi female students are all more likely to live in the parental/guardian home than White students. Students from all three Asian groups that do move out are less likely to attend a university outside their home region. These patterns are persistent in both 1998 and 2005. The third paper examines with the use of qualitative semi-structured interviews Indian mothers' perceptions of their roles in their daughters' university subject choices. The sample included nine women from varying educational backgrounds with different migration stories. It was important to all the interviewees that their daughters attend university, and this was something they had always envisaged. This aspiration was prevalent across the sample. The women rarely offered specific subjects and careers that they preferred for their daughters. Instead they had an inclination for a wide number of careers that shared specific favourable features such as high pay rewards.

This study investigates the experiences of South Asian women being treated for breast cancer within a British system of health and social care that recognises racialised inequalities in care and is striving to provide culturally sensitive care to an increasingly diverse population. The research was conducted in a National Health Service (NHS) Trust in an outer London suburb. It is a qualitative exploratory study based on eighteen in- depth interviews and participant observation of interactions between women with breast cancer and health care professionals. The interviews were conducted in three languages: English, Gujarati and Hindi. In examining whole person care from the perspectives of both health care professionals and South Asian women, this thesis demonstrates how ethnicity as both a category of social difference and a process of social identification can present significant challenges for holistic care at different stages of the patient pathway. The concept of othering is used to make sense of the complicated relationships between health care professionals and South Asian women and to examine the extent to which care is responsive to differences of ethnicity, culture and faith. The findings from participant observation and qualitative interview data suggest that health professionals can often reduce the complex experiences of South Asian women to cultural difference. Such thinking can serve to compromise therapeutic relationships in which mutual power sharing and decision making is inhibited. However, cultural stereotyping is not a uniform process and can be transformed in situ so that some women are able to access personalised and holistic care. Whilst recognising that the needs of South Asian are complex evidence from this study suggests that othering can be a central process through which health care professionals contribute to the marginalisation of South Asian women within health care services.

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