All nations with significant dimensions of immigration and ethnic minorities are facing policy tensions stemming from two contradicting fundamental constitutional principles. The establishment and preservation of nationhood seems to require cultural homogeneity and associated integration of the population living on a specified territory. However, the aim of integration is challenged by the principle of recognising and safeguarding cultural identities of minorities and immigrants. One of central debates concerns language policy. This country study concerns the recent relation of language policy and immigration policy in Germany. It is based on the analysis of public discourses circling around the legislative process and the subsequent application and amendment of the foreigners’ statute of 1997 and the immigration statute of 2004 including the Green card initiative (2000) and the debate about restrictive policies after the Madrid bombing (2004). It also contains a case study of the controversies on the German-only policy on the playground of a multi-ethnic school in Wedding, a district of Berlin. Recent media coverage shows that this example, picked in 2006, has since achieved a paradigmatic quality. The thesis outlines and applies aspects of critical discourse analysis for the interpretation of selected relevant texts, mainly contained in national quality newspapers. The case study is also based on interviews and use of correspondence addressed to the school.

Mega projects have become an important new development strategy in globalizing cities, and a new or emerging form of development in economic, technological, social and political life, influenced by global flows of capital. Despite being acknowledged as an important factor in globalizing economies, the role of mega projects has failed to receive appropriate research attention in terms of analysis of the various advantages and disadvantages that they carry. This research seeks to achieve a better understanding of the nature of urban development, and its implications for Dubai. The research involves an assessment of whether urban mega projects actually develop as a result of globalisation processes and draws conclusions on conflicting discussions about economic growth and social change. The research aims to establish Dubai’s attitudes towards urban mega projects and globalisation, focusing on the ways the phenomenon is conceptualized, and on understanding the impacts of the new urban paradigm, with particular reference to the Jumeirah Palm Island mega project. The research sets out to examine three key issues; firstly what are the effects of global economic factors and foreign direct investment, and how have economic factors have become a catalyst for development? Secondly, the thesis considers the technological and architectural features of large-scale development. Thirdly, it focuses on new social trends and the extent of public participation, and analyses the political dimensions of globalisation. The research reveals that whilst there are some similarities with other mega projects around the world, the Jumeirah Palm Island mega project is the product of a unique development policy. There are many global elements in the Palm Island development but there is also a significant regional dimension, as in many of the underpinning capital flows. It is argued that the adoption of a mega projects policy may have had negative consequences on the indigenous population of Dubai, which has become a minority 12% of the total population.

The process of Lesbian, Gay or Bisexual (LGB) identity formation is a complex one. There are many barriers in place which, implicitly or otherwise, seek to control and regulate same-sex attraction. An essential part of LGB identity formation is the process of disclosure to others, which can elicit a variety of reactions, from instant rejection to intense camaraderie. An examination of the ways in which LGB teenagers manage the visibility of their sexual identities, in the face of heterosexual control and regulation, will have profound implications for the work of those professionals who work with these young people. Using a Constructivist Grounded Theory approach (Charmaz 2005, 2006), this study examines the experiences of 14-19 year old LGB teenagers concerning self-discovery, disclosure to others, coping with negative pressures and school responses to LGB visibility. Students, teachers and school managers were asked about the promotion of heterosexual and LGB-friendly assumptions and values in a school context. Thirty-five LGB young people were asked about how these assumptions had affected their lives. Some participants seemed able to manage anti-LGB pressures much better than others and, in order to determine why, participants were asked to identify the social, verbal and non-verbal strategies they have adopted in order to manage their LGB visibility in the face of these pressures. The emergent theory is entitled ‘A Constructivist model of LGB youth identity development’. By focusing on self-presentation and the management of homonegative pressures, this study highlights the need for a greater awareness of the ways in which LGB teenagers cope with social stigmatisation and manage disclosure in order to gauge the likely reactions from others. By developing an awareness of LGB visibility management, it will be possible for those who work with young LGB teenagers to circumvent some of the adverse interpersonal and psychological effects of homonegative stigmatisation.

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This thesis investigates differentials in the levels of fertility, nuptiality and contraceptive use in Liberia and Ghana, using data from the recent Demographic and Health Surveys in these countries. Of particular interest is the effect of the community in which a woman lives on her current and past fertility, her marital status and her use of contraception. This interest stems from the fact that, although the community in which a woman lives is integral to anthropological explanations of fertility, statistical models of fertility have rarely included an assessment of community effects. The method of analysis used is multilevel modelling. This involves fitting variables measured at the woman level, variables measured at the community level and also includes the use of random effects to assess the extent to which community effects have not been captured by the fixed explanatory variables. Multilevel log-linear models are used in the analyses of fertility and multilevel logistic models are used in the analyses of nuptiality and contraceptive use. This thesis demonstrates not only that there is significant variation between communities in both Liberia and Ghana for number of births 0-4 years before survey, children ever born, marital status and use of contraception but also that in each case significant community effects are found even after controlling for woman's age, education, religion and ethnicity.

The English language has spread across the globe to become an international language. With the growing number of speakers of English, it has been claimed that English is no longer the sole property of its native speakers but is a global lingua franca (ELF). Under these circumstances, it is natural that various language ideologies have formed, pervaded with ideological debates. In the last two decades, scholarly research has urged reform and re-evaluation in the field of English language teaching (ELT). However, in practice, most ELT approaches remain stigmatised to the standard or ‘authentic’ native speaker English paradigm. This overlooks the fact that English is more often used by non-native speakers than native speakers. In addition, the functional role of the language is routinely ignored when it comes to the classroom practice of language teaching. As people’s attitudes towards the English language and ELT display substantial intransigence, despite the rapidly-changing linguistic realities, it is necessary to investigate how university teachers and students perceive this international language in relation to language pedagogy. Until now, research based on the ELF paradigm has been relatively rare, particularly in the Chinese context. This thesis draws upon Chinese university students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards their own and other English accents in the ELF framework. The research adopted a mixed-methods approach in order to obtain the desired level of detail. First, a questionnaire was sent to students to generate quantitative data to help understand students’ attitudes about accents more broadly. With the aim of providing rich data description, interviews and focus groups were also employed, with both student and teacher participants. From the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, the findings suggest that both student and teacher participants display complex and uncertain attitudes. In general, students did not feel satisfied with their own English accents and would like to refine them to match native speakers of English more closely, but they did not expect other people to sound native-like; this result may reflect the notion of ‘being strict with oneself while relaxed with others’ that has been identified as prevalent in Chinese culture. Teachers display two primary outlooks: on the one hand, they recognised the global spread of English and noted the importance of their own identities when using the language. On the other hand, a number of them still believed they should improve their English accents because they serve as professional pronunciation role models to students. A key finding of the research is that, despite the rooted native-oriented ideology, both students and teachers expressed the necessity of exposure to different accents. In sum, the research findings demonstrate various and complex accent attitudes in relation to the participants’ identity construction. Based on the implications of the research, the thesis concludes with a proposal for teaching pronunciation based on the ELF framework – Teaching of Pronunciation for Intercultural Communication (ToPIC) – as a pronunciation praxis to respond better to the current linguistic landscape of English. Research limitations and possibilities for further research are discussed at the end of the thesis.

This thesis investigates text memorization, a widely used yet under-explored language practice in foreign language teaching and learning in mainland China. The inquiry was conducted along two lines: to conceptually examine a number of issues central to the understanding of the practice of text memorization in the Chinese context, and empirically inquire into Chinese learners/teachers’ practices and perceptions of the inclusion of text memorization in foreign language learning and teaching. The review of literature shows that (text) memorisation had been widely practiced in other parts of the world until recently, including the Anglophone west. By challenging the belief that emphasis on memorisation stifles and creative thinking, which is believed to be one of the key aims of Western education, I argue that memorisation or memorised knowledge is not only legitimate in but constitutes an important part of learning. I also demonstrate that Confucius’ theory of learning, which allows the coexistence of emphasis on memorisation and critical thinking arguably can be of relevance to education in the 21st century. Also advanced in the conceptual study is the argument that the methodological considerations underlying ALM (Audio Lingual Method), despite its western origin, match up to some fundamental Chinese conceptions of learning and teaching. The empirical study reported in this thesis addresses the need for a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the practices and beliefs of Chinese learners and teachers regarding the use of text memorization in foreign language learning and teaching. This study bases its methodology on semi-structured interviews complemented by small-scale surveys. The data was collected from a group of Chinese learners (N=42) and teachers (N=20) affiliated with 10 schools and 6 universities at three different educational levels, i.e. junior high, senior high and college, which constitute the major part of foreign language education in China. Data collection was mainly based in a single Chinese inland capital city and lasted for one year and two months involving two fieldwork trips to China. Analyses of the data lead to two major findings. First, both learners and teachers hold overwhelmingly positive perceptions of the use of text memorization in foreign language learning and teaching. The practice was perceived to be beneficial not only because it assists learning in a number of ways but because it builds the learners’ sense of achievement and confidence. Second, the informants’ positive beliefs about text memorisation, though context-constrained, might be more attributable to their perception of benefits to their language learning and teaching than to the view that the practice is consistent with traditional Chinese culture and values. In sum, this inquiry promotes a ‘different-rather than-deficit’ perspective in understanding Chinese learners and their learning practice as well as problematizing the uncritical assumptions about the negative impact of a Confucian philosophy of education.

This study, an action research project to promote the teaching of culturally and ethnically diverse history with history trainee teachers on a secondary postgraduate certificate of education (PGCE) course, encompasses two complete action research cycles. The first of which was during the academic year 2007-2008 and the second in 2008-2009. It draws together research from the fields of diversity education, history education and trainee teacher development. Concerns about the ability of trainee teachers from white, monocultural backgrounds to embrace diversity in their classroom practice, not only within the United Kingdom but internationally, were identified during the reconnaissance stage of the action research cycle. Data collected from eight experienced teachers and a cohort of history trainees in 2006-2007 revealed a range of specific concerns and an action plan was created to infuse the history PGCE course to address these. Thus emphasis was placed on including culturally and ethnically diverse content to help trainee history teachers appreciate the values and purposes of the subject and the appropriateness of content to be taught. There was also an increased focus on subject knowledge development, pedagogy and awareness of the impact of the history curriculum on pupils from diverse backgrounds. Seven trainees agreed to participate and provide data during the course 2007-2008. Questionnaires and ‘scenario’ interviews were used to gather data at the start and end of the course. This enabled the development of a new framework, the ‘confidence continuum’, which revealed that most trainees moved from a position of naïve confidence to greater uncertainty between the start and end of the course. A second action research cycle was therefore carried out with a different cohort in 2008-2009. The intention was to see how far a more explicit focus on diversity could embed this element into the practice of trainee teachers. The data, gathered at three points in the year using questionnaires and interviews from six participating trainees, revealed that a more explicit focus on diversity issues helped more trainees move to a position of greater confidence. Overall, the findings from this study show that it is possible for trainee history teachers from a white monocultural background to embrace diversity in their work, although this varies by individual. This research identifies the concerns that trainee teachers face, but more importantly it offers a new way to conceptualise their levels of confidence, through the ‘confidence continuum’, and in so doing demonstrates the complex interplay between different areas of knowledge and confidence. Further, it provides a theoretical model to explain the tensions which need to be addressed during a PGCE course. Together the continuum and the ‘tensions’ model identify and explain why trainees adopt particular positions. The study suggests further gains could be possible if school history departments and school mentors were supported in developing their practice in relation to culturally and ethnically diverse history.

This research provides some of the first quantitative analyses of the family patterns of Polish and Other A8 groups in the UK and compares their migration experience with that of other recent migrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh and India, for whom migration is more commonly thought to be related to family formation. The analyses fill a gap in the literature by offering insight into the trends underlying current foreign-born fertility patterns, in the wider context of increasing UK immigration, increasing shares of UK births to foreignborn mothers and compositional changes in these patterns since 2001. The research uses a pooled sample of UK Labour Force Survey data, combining quarters from 2001-2009, to ensure sufficient sample sizes. A series of binomial logistic regressions are fitted to predict the probability of being partnered and of being a parent, first for recent migrants in comparison to other groups and then for more detailed analyses amongst the recent migrant groups. Own Children Methodology is then used to estimate the fertility patterns of the recent migrant groups so that the timing of births can be analysed in relation to the timing of migration. The findings show that the probabilities of being partnered for the 20-34 years age groups studied here are much higher for females, with it seemingly more common for males to migrate without partners than for females. In this respect, the experience of A8 females is similar to that of South Asian females, but they differ with regards to the relationship between the migration event and partnership status. For South Asian females, the pattern is consistent with marriage migration, whilst this is not the case for the A8 groups. The probabilities of being parents are found to be relatively low for male recent migrants, even amongst those who are partnered, except amongst the Pakistani and Bangladeshi males. For females, the differences in parent status are also pronounced between country of birth groups, with Polish and Other A8 females having lower parent probabilities than the South Asian groups. Own Child fertility estimates confirm that the fertility of the Polish group is relatively low, characteristic of that at origin. For young South Asian migrant females, evidence is found for family formation related migration, with high proportions arriving to the UK childless and having births soon after arrival. For the Polish females, this phenomenon exists at younger ages but is less common, and those in their early thirties more commonly join partners who arrived to the UK previously, and bring their children with them. The findings illustrate that whilst the nature of migration is very different for A8 and South Asian females, for both groups migration is often indirectly or directly related with being partnered and having children, but that this manifests in different ways, relating to the nature of migration undertaken and the different socio-legal contexts for migrants from these flows. The findings contradict the popular belief that recent Polish migrants to the UK are primarily single, with the migration and family reunification process occurring quickly for this group who have relative ease of movement within the European Union.