This research sets out to investigate methods to design urban spaces in Malaysia by studying the approach adopted by architects. The primary concern is the design of exterior spaces with the assumption that the poor urban spaces found in Malaysian urban areas is due to the weaknesses in the design method adopted by designers. For this purpose, the research addressed these objectives:- (1) To identify the reasons why the design of urban spaces is neglected by architects that produce poor continuity in the design of urban spaces, (2) To examine the process adopted and the infonnation used by architects in the design of urban ensemble and (3) To investigate the ways in which the architects responded to the needs of the user and the public. The techniques used for data collection include literature review, discussions with experts, content analysis, author's experience in practice, recognisance, observation, survey and in-depth interview. The information gathered was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively. The weaknesses of the design process and limited use of important information were due to: (1) poor recognition of urban design, (2) limited time allocated, (3) economic pressure, (4) quick commissioning of the project and (5) professionalism. There was also insufficient public involvement in the design process due to poor public awareness, client's attitude, financial constraints, professionalism and the attitudes of the designer. As such design was mostly related to marketing strategy. The main theory adopted in the organisation of the exterior spaces is mostly related to circulation (line) and centres (dots). At the same time, the traditional urban spaces and fonns were influential element used in design. The recommendations that follow were geared towards improving the design methods adopted by architects in producing better design of urban spaces.

This work charts the development of corporate "Black" identity among Afro-Caribbean people in Birmingham. It begins with a theoretical appraisal of the concept of identity and offers a sociological definition in terms of the conscious projection of a shared and worthy self-image into social reality. In selecting Afro-Caribbean people as a case-study, a historical and internatipnal perspective is adopted. Even though the peculiar mode of incorporating Africans into British slave-based societies suggested that a Sambo/Quashie identity resonant with the dominant "White" structures would emerge, it is argued that more positive identities were cultivated among the blacks and transmitted to their descendants by means of "creole" cultures. Such syncretic cultures provided complex links with the countries from which the resources came. The British elements presumably reinforced the objective economic and political forces that accounted for the migration of black British subjects from the colonies to the metropolis after World War II. However, the low social placement of these migrants together with their depiction in local newspapers as non-white, troublesome, alien and unwanted "guests" created identity problems for them. The empirical data of this study show that they drew resources from black reference groups abroad to assert a number of more positive and meaningful identities that ranged from avoidance, through acceptance and toleration, to suspicion and rejection of the status quo. As conditions worsen and as "racialist" structures congeal during the current economic recession, it is contended that this typology will contract into a characteristic Pan-African identity among Afro-Caribbean people resident in Britain. The anti-imperial component of this identity implies that the struggle for liberation will be brought home to the metropolis and mark the final stage of the British imperial adventure.

This study examines through a case study of Germany and its politics of citizenship vis-a-vls members of ethnic minorities a) the deficiencies of a nationally bound concept of citizenship in countries of immigration; b) the transformation of citizenship into a concept that is increasingly oblivious to national borders as a result of international migration and ethnic heterogeneity. This is a development that takes place despite strenuous efforts by the nation state to maintain a nationally bounded notion of citizenship; c) finally, the role of members of ethnic minorities in inducing this transformation will be analysed by focussing on the case of Berliners of Turkish origin. The thesis is an original contribution to the development of sociological accounts of citizenship for three reasons: First, it integrates three central debates around citizenship - as regards legal status, rights and participation. Second, it contributes to the development of a new dimension to citizenship studies by analysing the social construction of citizenship from below. Finally, it provides important empirical findings that illuminate current debates on citizenship which have so far been highly abstract and theoretical. The thesis is based on empirical research that was carried out in Berlin in October/November 1996, from April to June 1997 and in May 1998. In this context, I conducted interviews with civil servants, officials and politicians at the national and city level; with members/employees of social initiatives, academics and journalists. Furthermore, I carried out qualitative, semistructured interviews with a) young Berliners of Turkish origin, and with persons of the same background who are b) active members of German political parties and trade unions; c) active in immigrant organisations.

This research project aims to argue that the notions of ethnic identity, ethnic group and ethnicity should be thought of as socially constructed. In order to strengthen the above assumption, fieldwork was undertaken by examining African Mozambicans' narratives of immigration and identity, and acculturation strategies in Portugal and in England. The reading of the data suggests that individuals' perceptions of their identity and of the social world change over time, and in accordance with the social structures in which their lives are imbued. In addition, it is certain that social actors use discourse as a narrative form to justify and legitimise their identity options, and acculturative strategies. Taking into consideration the analysis of fieldwork material, it is possible to conclude, on the one hand, that the notions of ethnic identity, ethnic group and ethnicity are socially constructed, on the other hand, that the term ethnicity should be addressed as a detached human experience from the terms of ethnic identity and ethnic group.

In a society concerned with 'racial' purity and anxious to protect 'racial' boundaries people of mixed parentage are presumed to experience pressure, internal and external, to be aware of 'racial' differences and their own perceived ambiguous position. Some commentators believe that people of mixed parentage 'do not fit' into society If only they would pretend to be 'like the rest of us' then everyone would be happy There are few, if any, representations of coherent identities. The main concern of my research is to discover the factors which influence the development of racial(ised) identity in people of mixed parentage. An understanding of personal and social identity is an important part of my research I investigate how people of mixed parentage express their racial(ised) identity and question whether racial(ised) identity formation is ever really finished.

Scholarly and political interest in the Muslim population in Britain has greatly increased since the 1970s. Issues such as the Rushdie affair and the Gulf war brought Muslims into the media spotlight, and provided focal points for the mobilisation of Muslims committed to maintaining Islamic values in Britain. Most research on Muslims in Britain has focused on Asian groups. While these may represent the majority, generalisations about Islam and Muslims in Britain are not possible without examining the experiences of other Muslim communities. This thesis, therefore, sets out to improve social scientific understanding of the varied experiences of Muslims in Britain by comparing women from two Muslim groups: Pakistanis and Turkish Cypriots. The aim of the thesis is to examine the significance of religion and culture in the lives of Pakistani and Turkish Cypriot women in London. The principal objectives are to show (a) how these different and often competing elements are involved in identity formation and transformation, and (b) how they influence, and are influenced by factors such as race, class and gender. My research is based on two years of fieldwork with a variety of different community organisations catering specifically for Muslims, Pakistanis, or Turkish speakers. In addition I carried out thirty in-depth interviews with women who were actively involved in these communities. The aim was to examine the major issues relevant to each of these two groups, as well as to assess the importance of the organisations for Turkish Cypriot and Pakistani women in London. My research found firstly, that despite the vast diversity evident among my informants in terms of their identity and the individual strategies they choose to adopt, their community organisations had a vital and significant role to play in the development and empowerment of women across the generations. Secondly, my findings revealed the complex and changing nature of social identities, as well as the ability of second and third generation Pakistani and Turkish Cypriot women actively to select and interpret competing cultural systems, and to adopt, incorporate or abandon specific elements in their search for an appropriate individual strategy. Young Turkish Cypriots and Pakistani women are shown to be actively defining and redefining themselves as a result of the multifarious cultural and structural factors that they experience both on an individual and group level. 'Race', class and gender are crucial to this process of cultural redefinition, as women's cultural beliefs necessarily reflect the structural forces that affect their lives. The intersection of 'race', class and gender locates individuals in their social positions and subsequently elicits considerations of beliefs and identities.

'The Politics of Ethnicity, Identity and Religion Among Turks in London' is a study of a micro-Muslim community in Britain. Earlier research on Islam and Muslims in Britain concentrated predominantly on Islam amongst South-Asian Muslims although there is a large degree of diversity in the expression of cultural and religious identity among Muslim communities in Britain. This thesis seeks to come to an understanding of the politics of ethnicity, identity and religion among Turkish Muslims who are a part of this diversity. The main objective of this research is to analyse how Turkish identity is constructed and what are the roles of family, culture, organisations and religious groups in the reproduction and transmission of traditional values to the young generation. This research is expected to fill a gap in research on micro-Muslim communities in Britain. Research methods involved participant observation, in-depth interviews and a survey. Seventeen months of fieldwork in the north-east London and two months fieldwork in Berlin were carried out to collect ethnographic data. During the research, 77 people were interviewed in-depth, 93 young Turks participated in a survey and 29 people took part in group interviews. The thesis begins with a brief account of immigration to Western Europe in general and to Britain in particular. Then, a discussion of theoretical issues on migration, ethnicity and the development of identity is presented where the major anthropological and sociological theories are examined. Turkish immigration to Western Europe in general and to Britain in particular is outlined in Chapter Four and issues concerning family, kinship and reproduction of traditional values are examined in Chapter Five wherein it is argued that Turkish identity is reinforced by the reproduction of family values and kin relations in London. It is also demonstrated in this Chapter that new types of relations are established which are based on wider social networks. Continuity and change in the identity construction of the young Turkish generation are discussed by analysing their attitudes towards language, culture, family, sexuality and religion in Chapters Six and Seven. The process of institutionalisation and analysis of the influence of Turkish organisations on the politics of identity and its expression are presented in Chapters Eight, Nine and Ten. The institutionalisation of Islam is analysed in relation to identity and religious diversity within the Turkish community. The politics of main Islamic groups are also analysed to explain how religion and politics are related and the extent to which religious movements in the country of origin influence Islamic organisations abroad. This research shows that family relations and social networks have played an important role on every stage of immigration and settlement Traditional values are constantly reproduced within Turkish families as an expression of identity and every effort is made to ensure that the young generation are not alienated from these values. However, there is an emergent identity construction taking place among the young generation, generally inspired by the 'local' experience. This suggests that the emergent Turkish identity accommodates continuity and change in relation to Turkish culture, sometimes producing tension between generations. For the young generation traditions, culture and religion are increasingly becoming values for 'symbolic' attachment.

The Swedish-speaking minority in Finland, often described as an ‘elite minority’, holds a special position in the country. With linguistic rights protected by the constitution of Finland, Swedish-speakers, as a minority of only 5.3%, are often described in public discourse and in academic and statistical studies as happier, healthier and more well off economically than the Finnish-speaking majority. As such, the minority is a unique example of language minorities in Europe. Knowledge derived from qualitatively grounded studies on the topic is however lacking, meaning that there is a gap in understanding of the nature and complexity of the minority. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in four different locations in Finland over a period of 12 months, this thesis provides a theoretically grounded and empirically informed rich account of the identifications and sites of belonging of this diverse minority. The thesis makes a contribution to theoretical, methodological and empirical research on the Swedish-speaking minority, debates around identity and belonging, and ethnographic methodological approaches. Making use of novel methodology in studying Swedish-speaking Finns, this thesis moves beyond generalisations and simplifications on its nature and character. Drawing on rich ethnographic empirical material, the thesis interrogates various aspects of the lived experience of Swedish-speaking Finns by combining the concepts of belonging and identification. Some of the issues explored are the way in which belonging can be regionally specific, how Swedish-speakers create Swedish-spaces, how language use is situational and variable and acts as a marker of identity, and finally how identifications and sites of belonging among the minority are extremely varied and complex. The thesis concludes that there are various sites of belonging and identification available to Swedish-speakers, and these need to be studied and considered in order to gain an accurate picture of the lived experience of the minority. It also argues that while identifications are based on collective imagery, this imagery can vary among Swedish-speakers and identifications are multiple and situational. Finally, while language is a key commonality for the minority, the meanings attached to it are not only concerned with ‘Finland Swedishness’, but connected to various other factors, such as the context a person grew up in and the region one lives in. The complex issues affecting the lived experience of Swedish-speaking Finns cannot be understood without the contribution of findings from qualitative research. This thesis therefore points towards a new kind of understanding of Swedish-speaking Finns, moving away from stereotypes and simplifications, shifting our gaze towards a richer perception of the minority.

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This thesis takes as its object of study issues emerging from the synthesis of documentary practice and theoretical discourse. Its context is formed by the production of four published works commissioned and broadcast by the BBC in 2011/2012. These comprise: a drama-documentary, an observational documentary and two radio programmes. The programmes gathered archival and recorded memories and oral histories from Scarp, a small, now abandoned, island off the coast of Harris in the Outer Hebrides whose oral history and memories are in danger of being lost forever. The thesis argues for the acknowledgement of the 'situatedness' of the producer by exploring background, cultulral positioning and professional training, specifically within the context of Gaelic culture and broadcasting. The thesis makes the specific claim that the published works and the research appendices, in combination with the critical essay, make an important contribution not only to our understanding and ethnographic knowledge of island cultures on the west coast of Scotland, but also to our understanding of the processes of media production and respresentation as critically reflected upon by an academic practitioner. Through a cross-disciplinary engagement with debates within documentary, ethnography and oral history, this thesis will also demonstrate that narrative, subjectivity, generic delivery, commissioning constraints and intervention need not exclude television programmes, and the research produced to create them, from containing valuable ethnographic information that (under academic analysis) makes a contribution to our understanding of culture. A self-reflexive methodology reveals the extent to which the producer intervenes in, changes, and brings their own subjective perspective to, any work of ethnographic data gathering or oral history collection, and how this research is constrained by the commissioner.