Historians of industrial financing have often adopted a single-firm or single issue approach, emphasising prominent companies that have bequeathed documentary riches on which detailed studies can be based. However, historians concede that such firms were untypical, as most businesses disappeared leaving liftle trace. Even so, all too little consideration has been given to the source material that is available, especially to assess the ability of partnerships to generate company finance, whilst aspects of the demand for capital that arose from urbanisation and transport development also remains under-researched. Concentrating on textile Lancashire, this thesis researches lesser-known entrepreneurs between 1770 and 1850 from little-used primary material, studying partnerships as important suppliers of capital. This original approach demonstrates the growing importance of partnerships, particularly amongst non-family firms, exploring the sources of funding they tapped, and comparing share allocations they made. Consideration is also given to investments partnerships made in establishing related enterprises and how they coped with capital withdrawal on a partner's retirement. Investment in Lancashire's infrastructure is analysed partly in relation to the construction and improvement of turnpike roads, matters of considerable importance to manufacturers in transporting products and raw materials and which required high levels of financing. It examines the levels of finance needed for improvements, the sources from which it was drawn, and the role of businessmen in financial management of turnpike trusts. Infrastructural development is also addressed in relation to the construction of the numerous handloom weavers' cottages that were built by terminating building societies. Identifying the membership of these societies reveals that they were not self-help schemes for artisans, but rather that they offered opportunities for those with surplus income to invest in tenanted properties at a time when the skills of the handloom weaver were at a premium. This provision was vital to Lancashire's burgeoning economy, and offered subscribers an additional source of income. In drawing together the threads of the discussion, new insights are presented to show that the kinds of associations open to them provided a range of investment opportunities for people at different levels of society, who can all be regarded as members of Lancashire's investing classes.

The aim of this thesis is to explain the reasons why some residential areas have substantially more vandalism than others. Various theories are critically examined in the first three chapters in relation to their applicability in explaining spatial patterning of crime and delinquency. A new town, which had visibly highly different levels of vandalism on different housing estates, was chosen for study. Secondary data, commissioned by the Skelmersdale Development Corporation, was analysed to see if the vandalised and non-vandalised areas had other distinquishing characteristics - demographically and socio-economically. Six main hypotheses were constructed for testing in Skelmersdale. A random stratified sample of householders were interviewed regarding their attitudes towards victimisation and tolerance of crime and delinquency. Householders were interviewed on both "problem" and "non-problem" housing estates. The Data was then analysed by using the SPSSx computer package. The main conclusion is that it is necessary to adopt a holistic approach to more fully understand the complex processes which produce "problem" and "non-problem" residential areas. This means viewing the phenomena of vandalism by looking at the delinquents, the housing market, macro economics and social and cultural structures. In explaining vandalism no one theory, such as defensible space, will do. We need to take into account a multitude of factors - such as the relative desirability of housing areas, tenants self selection processes, housing allocation processes, conduct norms, informal social control mechanisms, the existence of empty houses and the opportunity to commit vandalism etc. All these will have different degrees of importance in different housing areas. The reasons for vandalism will be relative to the place where it is committed.

The research is informed by the post-modernist theoretical framework. This framework is chosen because of its dynamic and eclectic epistemology which allows the study to identify the experiences of a group of African Caribbean people within the British education system. It also explores the patterns of experiences among three African Caribbean generations in Preston. The study seeks to explain the relative success of minority African Caribbean people in the education system. Data was gathered from questionnaire, interviews along with ethnographic observations from local secondary school and participation in seminars and conferences. The tools used to analyse the data employs the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is used to analyse the survey data while Nvivo is used to analyse the interviews conducted. Both packages yielded significant results. The research concludes that while racism remains a widespread educational experience among the three generations of African Caribbean people studied, a great disparity of achievement also exists at different levels of educational success. While the second generation tops the success rates of educational attainment, the third generation fared abysmally. The research found that the length of African Caribbean peoples' stay in Britain does not correlate with their educational success. There is a social stratum within the African Caribbean community which mimics the host society; those from the middle class families tend to account for the largest rate of educational success in the English education system. The research also concludes that whilst living in semi urban environments does not guarantee educational success, in comparison it is even far worse for African Caribbean people living in deprived inner city council estates to achieve success in the educational system. The research proposes significant recommendations for policy makers, Local Education Authorities, schools, teachers, and the African Caribbean community especially parents to work together to promote educational success among African Caribbean people.

This thesis is an immanent critique of the African human rights system. It, therefore, examines the practice of human rights as set by the African people as opposed to purely external transcendental forms of critique. This is carried out by studying the theory of the African regional human rights system as presented in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 1986, and then evaluating the practice to determine its consistency with the theory of rights contained in the Charter. Evaluation of the practice is achieved through necessary references to State Reports, Concluding Observations, NGO statements and rapporteur reports. Further assessments on the consistency between the theory and practice of such rights take into consideration the practicality of the normative standards as well as the challenges of implementation. As an immanent critique, the research evaluates identified discrepancies and tensions between theory and practice with the aim of ideally resolving these through proposed policy and other reforms. The originality of the research is hinged on the adopted approach which affords a holistic assessment of the African human rights system. This translates into concrete findings on the actual practice of the Charter and informed reform proposals based upon a thorough critical evaluation of these findings. The research, therefore, makes a case for an assessment of human rights in Africa based on the continent’s internal standards as represented by the African Charter. It is shown, through this approach, that there are a number of discrepancies between theory and practice such that the regional system often, wholly or partially, fails in its implementation of human rights even when its actions are assessed by distinctly African standards. It is argued that these theory/practice discrepancies are occasioned by three convergent challenges namely the lack of adequate cooperation from member states, practical socio-economic and cultural challenges, and institutional ineffectiveness. The research argues that, unless these challenges are adequately addressed, the practice of human rights in the continent will continue to fall short of the expectations generated by the African Charter.

This thesis explores the relationship between a global industrial actor and its regional host, and what that can tell us about neoliberalism and globalisation. The relationship between the nuclear industry, in particular the Sellafield site, and the West Cumbrian region where it is located is the specific focus for the data collection and analysis. West Cumbria is an isolated region in the very north-west corner of England. West Cumbria was the site of the UK’s first nuclear reactors. Over seven decades, as other industries have declined, West Cumbria has become home to, and economically dependent on, one of the largest and most complex nuclear sites in the world. The core concepts employed to analyse this relationship are power and scale. In particular, this thesis analyses how power is rescaled in the context of state restructuring and the wider changes associated with globalisation. To be able to analyse power it was necessary to develop an applied understanding of the concept. This is informed by a diverse literature, and takes an implicitly geographical and relational understanding of the exercise of power in its diverse forms, bases and uses. Firstly, policy documentation is analysed to understand the impact of the changes to the governance and management of the UK’s oldest and most hazardous nuclear sites. Secondly, survey and focus group data is analysed which focusses on the position of the nuclear industry in the local economy and specific changes made as a result of the part-privatisation of the industry in 2008. Finally, an analysis of economic development plans which aim to grow West Cumbria’s economy, and demonstrate an increasing priority being given to new nuclear developments. Finally, these three areas are brought together to explore how power is rescaled, its implications and the wider relevance of the thesis to other locations and policy areas.

The present study is an investigation of the relationship between male value systems and male interpersonal conflict, with particular emphasis upon inter-personal violence. The study adopts a naturalistic methodology (Archer 1995) and draws on concepts drawn from a range of disciplines that are integrated using an evolutionary analysis (Daly and Wilson 1988, Archer 1996). The triangulation of methods comprising case studies (study 1), questionnaires (studies 3 and 4) and ethnography (study 2), form the basis for a descriptive phase of research (Archer 1989) that enabled specific hypotheses to be formulated and tested using experimental methods (studies 5 and 6). The research findings from the questionnaires and ethnographic observations suggested that male values may constitute important determinants of male aggression reflected, for instance, in the utility of physical aggression to acquire and defend status and to confirm a masculine identity. The case studies demonstrated that male value systems provide insights into the causation of extreme acts of violence. The Fight Self Report (study 3) highlighted features of fights and that they were more likely to occur in or around pubs and night-dubs, the provocations that were most likely to lead to aggressive ads and how males are expected to behave in conflict situations. The ethnographic observations (study 2) provided insights into how males interpret information about potential opponents' perceived threats and challenges and how age, social support and alcohol consumption influence aggressive responses. The observations also generated data that indicates that inter-male conversations may have ritual elements and may be used to maintain and acquire status. The Masculinity Questionnaire (study 4) provided further insight into the type of provocation that may lead to physical aggression and attitudes to how certain provocations should be responded to. The hypothesis testing stage of the project (studies 5 and 6) used questionnaires to manipulate Resource Holding Potential (RHP) and Provocation and to measure their influence on escalation of aggression. The study 5A demonstrated that young men are much less likely to indicate that they would respond to an insult with physical aggression if their opponent was bigger than them, had more potential allies and had a reputation for being successful in the use of physical aggression, which represented high RHP. Conversely young men were much more likely to use physical aggression against an opponent of low or medium RHP. The Provocation Study (study 5B) demonstrated that incidents involving insults to a sexual partner were the most likely situation to provoke a young man into using physical aggression. The final method used in the project, the Human Conflict Questionnaire (study 6), also manipulated RHP and Provocation and used measured variables that included not only physical aggression (as in study 5) but also a range of immediate and post-incident behavioural and cognitive responses. Principal Components Analyses identified three sub-scales, Direct Aggression, Non-Provocation Behaviour and Negative Impact (post-event negative emotional responses). Scales derived from these factors were used as DVs in an ANOVA The analyses. indicated that a challenge from an opponent of higher RHP than oneself is likely to reduce the chance of reacting with physical aggression but to increase non-aggressive responses Including subsequent negative cognitive reactions. Conversely high provocation from opponents of lower RHP than oneself are more likely to lead to physical aggression, and less likely to lead to nonaggressive responses, and to subsequent negative emotions. The findings of the various methods are interpreted using evolutionary concepts and a case is made for the existence of evaluative mechanisms in males that are used to assess RHP in other males and which may make males sensitive to status interactions with other men.

Whilst scholarship has shown that conflict between the major churches and the National Socialist regime was inevitable, there has been little written on the relationship between the Nazis and the Christian sects. This work takes five of the largest and most representative sects in Gennany and examines what happened to them during the Third Reich. Two introductory chapters set the scene. Chapter One examines the complex and often contradictory views of the Nazis on religion and summarises the position of the major churches. Chapter Two outlines the history and teaching of the five sects and introduces those Nazi government agencies ith which the sects caine into contact. The central body of the work is devoted to an analysis of the fate of the sects. The Jehovah's Witnesses are accorded two chapters, one discussing their experiences in the Reich and one outlining their life in concentration camps. Christian Science, Seventh Day Adventism, the New Apostolic Church and Mormonism are each discussed in sepaxAate chapters. Of the five sects, one was banned, one survived untouched for eight years and three suffered little or no harassment. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Nazis were suspicious of all sects and only accepted a modus vivendi with reluctance. Those sects who enjoyed a temporary co-existence had more to offer than just a loyal and patriotic membership, for all managed to convince the government that they were useful. This was done by financial or welfare contributions to the state, or by the use of foreign contacts, and all had to implement positive and carefully worked out policies to ensure their survival. Each group's survival strategy was worked out according to its own criteria, based on its own history and theology. To the Witnesses, survival meant the preaching of God's word, whatever the personal costs. To others, it meant the safety of members and of the sect, even at the cost of some compromises. All the sects represented rival claimants to the loyalty and obedience properly due to the Nazi state and even with these compromises, it is likely that, had the war been won, what happened to the Witnesses would have happened to all sects in Germany.

This thesis examines agricultural and agrarian developments 1650-1850 in a region - south-west Lancashire - that was increasingly dominated by industry and large urban centres. The thesis is firmly located within two distinct historiographical traditions: 'agrarian capitalism' and 'agricultural revolution'. The debates encompassed by these concepts have been largely conducted around the development of arable agriculture. Large parts of the north and west of England have been peripheral to these debates and the models of agrarian development were not constructed with counties like Lancashire in mind. This thesis, therefore, offers a geographical corrective to the existing literature. Not surprisingly, the models are found wanting, and patterns of agrarian and agricultural developments in Lancashire follow a different path to arable counties in the English Midlands and East Anglia. Yet, agriculture in Lancashire did not stagnate and farmers and landlords were enclosing and improving land from at least the middle of the seventeenth century in a bid to increase productivity. However, change was much more pronounced from the last third of the eighteenth century, when population growth, industrial expansion, increasing market demand for food and the development of the transport infrastructure offered new opportunities to farmers. They responded in a way which suited the local economic and social setting. In terms of farm size, labour structure and land use, the farmers of south-west Lancashire fell outside contemporary (and subsequent) perceptions of best practice. Lancashire developed a highly specialised and productive agricultural system that was not predicated upon conventional agrarian capitalism and avoided many of the negative outcomes of the processes of agricultural revolution.

Through a mixed thematic and chronological approach, this thesis attempts to place working-class anti-catholicism. within a broader social context whilst retaining. sight of the intricacies of the subject itself. Chapter One describes the city of Liverpool in the nineteenth century, with a view to providing not just a backdrop to the thesis but Pýso revealing some of the forces permanently exerting an influence on working-class opinion. The thesis argues that the most important of these forces was economic, in the form of intense rivalry for limited resources between Protestant English and Catholic Irish working people (Chapter 3). The sectarian dimension to this struggle is provided by the long-term popularity of an anti-Catholic agitation, in this case, the Papal Aggression. It finds that anti. -Catholic, in various intensities existed throughout the social classes of nineteenth century Liverpool, though its manifestations varied from class for class and between Protestant Sects. In Chapter Seven it is later suggested that the middle and upper-class deserted sectarianism leaving the working-class alone in their anxiety and outrage by the end of the century. In Chapter Five the physical manifestations of working-class anti-Catholicism are explored and it is argued that they fit into the mainstream picture of working-class leisure and middle-class respectability. Chapter Six suggests that a dual class and sectarian identity existed within the Protestant working-class which made any union with the social elite troublesome and even permitted Protestantism to be used as a vehicle for limited forms of class conflict whilst failing to prevent unity of industrial action across the sectarian divide. Chapter Seven reviews the development of anti-Catholicism as it shrinks in appeal between 1870 and 1914 to being a workingclass, Low Church or Nonconformist obsession.

This thesis aims to examine the Fellowship of St Alban and St Sergius, an ecumenical body that promotes relations between various Christian denominations. Despite being founded on the grounds to promote relations and dialogue between the Anglicans and the Orthodox, it has widened this scope, introducing new churches in its life, conferences, publications and history. In the first and second chapters of this thesis the first eighty five years (1927-2012) of its history are explored, identifying the Society’s strengths and weaknesses in achieving its objectives, whilst studying its theological approaches to the reunion work, understanding that this body has been a progressive fellowship, theologically and ecclesiastically. The third chapter investigates the life and the theological, philosophical and historical views of Nicolas Zernov, who had as a life goal to foster relations between the churches, whilst also promoting Orthodox and Russian topics to a Western audience. The final chapter examines two themes by two important members of the Fellowship, Metropolitan Kallistos of Diokleia’s ideas on deaconesses and women priests and former Anglican Archbishop Rowan Williams’ views on icons. These two topics are interesting and current for the continuation of the relations between the Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion, trying to further understand each other in order to eventually achieve what many in the Fellowship profess and what the Bible promotes, ‘that they all may be one’ (John 17:21). The conclusion of the thesis assesses the work of the Fellowship, whilst also looking into the post 2012 objectives and achievements of the Fellowship and the future goals of the Society. Therefore, this paper is a quest for truth, a quest for theology and a quest for unity.