This dissertation investigates the manner in which animals are treated, respected, and thought about In ancient Mesopotamia. The animals are seen in every level of culture and in a variety of roles. The dissertation tries to unravel how humans thought about animals as seen through Akkadian literature. The Akkadian literature is an excellent source of information since it has a long literary tradition with a conglomeration of text genres providing an opportunity to observe the attitudes, emotions, and beliefs Babylonian and Assyrian cultures had towards wild animals.

The purpose of this essay is to critically examine the current legal status of animals in the United States and offer possible alternatives to the current legal rights for animals. This essay examines the failures of the legal system in protecting animals that have abilities very similar to our own. With an examination of these types of animals, this essay will explain why some animals merit the status of legal personhood to protect them from being carelessly used by others. Ultimately, this essay is an attempt to open the field of legal protection for many animals starting with a few through legal personhood.

Infectious diseases are the world’s leading cause of premature deaths in humans and animals. The resistance to antibiotics and the emergence of new infectious diseases has increased the need for additional effective antimicrobial products. Despite numerous publications investigating antimicrobial activity of plant extracts it appears that no effective single product antimicrobial has yet been developed from plants. In many cases, however crude plant extracts have excellent activity and may provide useful products. Plants are frequently selected based on traditional use. Traditional healers usually use aqueous extracts of plants which in our experience generally have very low activities and it may be one of the reasons why no new products were developed from plants. Another approach to select plants for research is to use the taxonomic approach based on the premises that: (1) there is a correlation between active chemical compounds and antimicrobial activity; and (2) species in a family or order may have similar activities if the chemical precursors are inherited from a common ancestor. Future screening programmes could then concentrate on close relatives of species within these promising families and orders. The main aim of this study was to randomly screen leaf extracts of several hundred southern African tree species against important microbial pathogens to determine which taxa have the highest activity and may yield useful products to treat infections in human and animal health markets. A wide selection of plant species improved the possibility of finding promising extracts and has the advantage that active compounds may be discovered from plants that are not used traditionally. To ensure sustainable use only leaves of trees were examined. A spin off of this study would also indicate the susceptibility of different organisms, correlate the antimicrobial activities of the different organisms and determine what minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) represents a good activity based on investigating many extracts against many microbes. The antimicrobial activity was determined by using a sensitive serial dilution microplate method. Acetone extracts were tested against two Gram-positive bacteria, two Gram-negative bacteria and two fungi, i.e. Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. Small and mostly insignificant differences were found between the susceptibility of the microbial pathogens to the extracts. E. faecalis was the most sensitive bacterium and C. neoformans the most sensitive fungal organism. The strongest correlations in activities among the pathogens were between C. albicans and C. neoformans, and among the pathogen classes between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The tree extracts analysed in the present study had a wide range of activities against the different pathogens. Twenty six per cent of the extracts inhibited the pathogens at MIC levels of 0.16 mg/ml. This clearly shows that 0.16 mg/ml is not low enough to discriminate between promising species. Some of the extracts inhibited the growth of more than one pathogen while other extracts had selective activities and could be the most promising to follow up. The study identified families and orders with either statistically significantly higher or lower antimicrobial activities. Among the large families, Combretaceae and Fabaceae had high mean activities against all test pathogens. The families Anacardiaceae and Moraceae had high activities against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria whereas the families Proteaceae and Meliaceae had higher antifungal activities. Among the large orders, Fabales had relatively high activities against all the pathogen classes. Considering that plants in related taxa often contain similar compounds and therefore similar activities, future studies could analyse more representative species in the promising taxa. Many tree species, genera, families and orders, including well-known and lesser known medicinal taxa in southern Africa, were identified with promising activities. To evaluate the potential use of these results, additional cytotoxicity, phytochemical and pharmacological studies should be carried out. The study, although still exploratory, underlined the potential of southern African tree extracts as sources of antimicrobial products. Application of these results within the Phytomedicine Programme has led to patents and products that were as good as commercial products in animal and field trials. We hope that our results will provided a starting point for discovering new products with useful activities. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Paraclinical Sciences / Unrestricted

Esta dissertação investiga transformações contemporâneas em práticas e costumes de donos nas relações com seus animais de estimação. Nas últimas décadas, os animais têm passado por uma modificação de estatuto (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), sendo transformados em sujeitos na relação com os humanos. Para investigarmos tal processo, que tem sido denominado de “humanização” dos animais de estimação, realizamos esta pesquisa por meio de metodologia etnográfica, cuja observação participante mais prolongada foi desenvolvida numa clínica veterinária de Porto Alegre. A partir dos dados construídos em campo, produzimos este exercício por meio de uma antropologia das relações entre humanos e animais, através de uma aproximação teórica maior à obra do etnólogo francês Jean-Pierre Digard, na interface das antropologias das emoções, econômica e do corpo e da saúde animal. Desta maneira, temos um painel etnográfico que se volta para as transformações contemporâneas das relações entre humanos e animais. Verificamos uma íntima relação entre o discurso do “amor incondicional”, que os donos afirmam receber de seus animais de estimação, e o crescimento do mercado pet, sendo uma de suas principais dimensões o mercado de saúde animal, do qual os médicos veterinários são integrantes. Percebemos em campo uma tendência acentuada de tradução (LATOUR, 1994) da medicina humana para a veterinária, com crescimento das especialidades médico-veterinárias, integrando o processo de humanização dos pets. Finalmente, constatamos a “pediatrização” e a “geriatrização” dos pets, que acompanham as distintas fases da vida dos animais de estimação. / This dissertation investigates contemporary changes in practices and habits of pet owners in dealing with their pets. In recent decades, animals have undergone a change of statute (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), being transformed into subjects in their relation with humans. In order to investigate this process – which has been termed ‘humanization’ of pets –, we have conducted this research through an ethnographic methodology where the participant observation was carried out for a longer period in a veterinary clinic in Porto Alegre. Starting from the data constructed in the field, we have produced this exercise through Anthropology of the Relationship between Humans and Animals via a theoretical approach of the work of the greatest French ethnologist Jean-Pierre Digard in the interface of Anthropology of Emotions, Economy and the Animal’s Body and Health. In this way, we have an ethnographic panel that turns itself to the transformations of contemporary relationships between humans and animals. We have verified a close relationship between the discourses of ‘unconditional love’ – which the owners claim they get from their pets – and the growth of the Pet Market, being one of its main dimensions of the Animal Health Market – which veterinarians are members. We have noticed an increasing tendency in the field of translation (LATOUR, 1994) in human medicine to veterinary medicine with the growth of medical and veterinary specialties, integrating the process of humanization of pets. Finally, we have noticed a ‘pediatricszation’ and ‘geriatricszation’ of pets that accompany the different life stages of them.

Esta dissertação investiga transformações contemporâneas em práticas e costumes de donos nas relações com seus animais de estimação. Nas últimas décadas, os animais têm passado por uma modificação de estatuto (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), sendo transformados em sujeitos na relação com os humanos. Para investigarmos tal processo, que tem sido denominado de “humanização” dos animais de estimação, realizamos esta pesquisa por meio de metodologia etnográfica, cuja observação participante mais prolongada foi desenvolvida numa clínica veterinária de Porto Alegre. A partir dos dados construídos em campo, produzimos este exercício por meio de uma antropologia das relações entre humanos e animais, através de uma aproximação teórica maior à obra do etnólogo francês Jean-Pierre Digard, na interface das antropologias das emoções, econômica e do corpo e da saúde animal. Desta maneira, temos um painel etnográfico que se volta para as transformações contemporâneas das relações entre humanos e animais. Verificamos uma íntima relação entre o discurso do “amor incondicional”, que os donos afirmam receber de seus animais de estimação, e o crescimento do mercado pet, sendo uma de suas principais dimensões o mercado de saúde animal, do qual os médicos veterinários são integrantes. Percebemos em campo uma tendência acentuada de tradução (LATOUR, 1994) da medicina humana para a veterinária, com crescimento das especialidades médico-veterinárias, integrando o processo de humanização dos pets. Finalmente, constatamos a “pediatrização” e a “geriatrização” dos pets, que acompanham as distintas fases da vida dos animais de estimação. / This dissertation investigates contemporary changes in practices and habits of pet owners in dealing with their pets. In recent decades, animals have undergone a change of statute (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), being transformed into subjects in their relation with humans. In order to investigate this process – which has been termed ‘humanization’ of pets –, we have conducted this research through an ethnographic methodology where the participant observation was carried out for a longer period in a veterinary clinic in Porto Alegre. Starting from the data constructed in the field, we have produced this exercise through Anthropology of the Relationship between Humans and Animals via a theoretical approach of the work of the greatest French ethnologist Jean-Pierre Digard in the interface of Anthropology of Emotions, Economy and the Animal’s Body and Health. In this way, we have an ethnographic panel that turns itself to the transformations of contemporary relationships between humans and animals. We have verified a close relationship between the discourses of ‘unconditional love’ – which the owners claim they get from their pets – and the growth of the Pet Market, being one of its main dimensions of the Animal Health Market – which veterinarians are members. We have noticed an increasing tendency in the field of translation (LATOUR, 1994) in human medicine to veterinary medicine with the growth of medical and veterinary specialties, integrating the process of humanization of pets. Finally, we have noticed a ‘pediatricszation’ and ‘geriatricszation’ of pets that accompany the different life stages of them.

Esta dissertação investiga transformações contemporâneas em práticas e costumes de donos nas relações com seus animais de estimação. Nas últimas décadas, os animais têm passado por uma modificação de estatuto (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), sendo transformados em sujeitos na relação com os humanos. Para investigarmos tal processo, que tem sido denominado de “humanização” dos animais de estimação, realizamos esta pesquisa por meio de metodologia etnográfica, cuja observação participante mais prolongada foi desenvolvida numa clínica veterinária de Porto Alegre. A partir dos dados construídos em campo, produzimos este exercício por meio de uma antropologia das relações entre humanos e animais, através de uma aproximação teórica maior à obra do etnólogo francês Jean-Pierre Digard, na interface das antropologias das emoções, econômica e do corpo e da saúde animal. Desta maneira, temos um painel etnográfico que se volta para as transformações contemporâneas das relações entre humanos e animais. Verificamos uma íntima relação entre o discurso do “amor incondicional”, que os donos afirmam receber de seus animais de estimação, e o crescimento do mercado pet, sendo uma de suas principais dimensões o mercado de saúde animal, do qual os médicos veterinários são integrantes. Percebemos em campo uma tendência acentuada de tradução (LATOUR, 1994) da medicina humana para a veterinária, com crescimento das especialidades médico-veterinárias, integrando o processo de humanização dos pets. Finalmente, constatamos a “pediatrização” e a “geriatrização” dos pets, que acompanham as distintas fases da vida dos animais de estimação. / This dissertation investigates contemporary changes in practices and habits of pet owners in dealing with their pets. In recent decades, animals have undergone a change of statute (LEWGOY et alli, 2011; PIETTE, 2002), being transformed into subjects in their relation with humans. In order to investigate this process – which has been termed ‘humanization’ of pets –, we have conducted this research through an ethnographic methodology where the participant observation was carried out for a longer period in a veterinary clinic in Porto Alegre. Starting from the data constructed in the field, we have produced this exercise through Anthropology of the Relationship between Humans and Animals via a theoretical approach of the work of the greatest French ethnologist Jean-Pierre Digard in the interface of Anthropology of Emotions, Economy and the Animal’s Body and Health. In this way, we have an ethnographic panel that turns itself to the transformations of contemporary relationships between humans and animals. We have verified a close relationship between the discourses of ‘unconditional love’ – which the owners claim they get from their pets – and the growth of the Pet Market, being one of its main dimensions of the Animal Health Market – which veterinarians are members. We have noticed an increasing tendency in the field of translation (LATOUR, 1994) in human medicine to veterinary medicine with the growth of medical and veterinary specialties, integrating the process of humanization of pets. Finally, we have noticed a ‘pediatricszation’ and ‘geriatricszation’ of pets that accompany the different life stages of them.

Cette étude réexamine la théorie aristotélicienne du plaisir en analysant les textes qui s’approchent au plus près d’une définition du concept, et en mesurant les présupposés et les enjeux de leur contenu doctrinal dans l’ensemble de la philosophie d’Aristote. Elle est organisée autour d’un commentaire suivi de Ethique à Nicomaque X 3-4, où le statut du plaisir se trouve précisément déterminé : au sein d’un unique acte cognitif pensé comme une activité continuellement parfaite, le plaisir est à la fois la satisfaction avérée de notre bon exercice, et l’incitation à le continuer tel quel. Cette étude exige une élucidation de l’opposition entre « activité » (energeia) et mouvement, mais aussi un examen préalable de certains présupposés : nous reconsidérons, notamment à partir des traités de psychologie, les caractéristiques formelles de la sensation, paradigme de l’activité plaisante, et montrons que les plaisirs n’obéissant pas au même paradigme, et d’abord les satisfactions des appétits corporels, ne sont pas pour Aristote des plaisirs effectifs. Le dernier moment de notre étude est consacré à évaluer la théorie par rapport à sa destination, le savoir dont doit disposer l’éducateur pour produire les vertus et le bonheur : à partir des éléments fournis par Aristote, il s’avère difficile, bien que nécessaire, de distinguer le plaisir du bien auquel on doit tendre ; il est également malaisé de penser et d’évaluer les plaisirs que l’éducation doit réguler, mais aussi ceux qu’elle doit atteindre (celui de la meilleure pratique et celui de la meilleure contemplation). / I scrutinize Aristotle’s theory of pleasure by analysing the texts that define the concept as closely as can be, and by assessing the presuppositions and the stakes of this definition within Aristotle’s philosophy as a whole. My study is centred upon a commentary of Nicomachean Ethics X, 3-4 where the status of pleasure is enlightened with precision: located within a unique act of cognition (which is essentially a perfect and perpetual activity), pleasure is both an aspect that reveals our good functioning, and an incentive for us to keep it working in the exact same way. I explore the elements presupposed by this account, elucidating the opposition between “activity” (energeia) and process, and before, giving a new light to the formal features of the paradigm of a pleasant activity, i. e. perception, as it is conceived in the psychological treatises. I also explain how pleasures that do not follow this paradigm, i. e. bodily pleasures, are not seen by Aristotle as some effective pleasures at all. The last phase in this work is devoted to an assessment of the discourse on pleasure according to its aim: delivering to a teacher the knowledge he needs in order to produce virtues and happiness. I underline that, from the elements given by Aristotle, it is difficult, but necessary, to make a distinction between the pleasure one can feel at goodness and this very same goodness towards which one must strive. It is quite as difficult to conceive and evaluate all the forms of pleasure education has to regulate, as well as those that it must lead one to feel (pleasure deriving from the best practice, or from the best contemplation).

For many years Swedish archeologists have stumbled upon domestic cat remains in the Viking age graves. Most of the graves in this paper come from southern Sweden and Mälaren Valley where many finds have been studied. The questions are how much of the cats is left in the grave material, what kind of grave goods were deposited with the dead, if cats are usually buried either with men or women and what the combinations of all the different animal species that cats were buried with can tell us. The theory in this work is concerning human - animal relations between the vikings and their cats with the weight on antropocentrism. The point of the mentioned theory in this paper is to provide answers to what cats could mean in the viking burial ritual context. 17 grave fields have been analysed for this work with the biggest part of them located in the Mälaren Valley regions (14 grave fields), and 3 in southern Sweden. The result of this study implies that cats in the analysed Mälaren Valley and southern Sweden graves were buried with wealthy people like aristocrats and merchants. They were also seen as exotic pets during their lifetime. The cats were usually buried with other animals like dogs, horses and chickens which all propably had a status of sacral animals during viking age. Cats' remains condition is also brought up as the felines were found either as partial or full/ almost complete skelettons. Analysis results also imply that cats were buried as often with men as with women and there are also rare cases of child burials with these animals.