Clinicians and researchers have identified a pattern of "mixed" symptoms that are sometimes exhibited by individuals with bipolar spectrum disorders (BSDs). However, the criteria for these mixed states as outlined by the American Psychological Association have been criticized for being too stringent for most individuals that experience impairing episodes of mixed symptomatology (e.g., Akiskal, 1996). Mixed states are associated with a more impairing course of illness and suicidality. More research is needed on mixed states, and there is particularly little evidence for risk factors in recent-onset samples. The aims of this study were to 1) examine the prevalence of mixed states in a sample of individuals with recent-onset bipolar spectrum disorders, 2) examine the symptom structure of hypomanic and depressive episodes, and 3) examine some of the risk factors associated with mixed states. Participants in sample 1 were adolescents, initially aged 14-19, selected for exhibiting either moderate or high Behavioral Approach System (BAS) risk for first onset of BSDs. Participants in sample 2 were 18-24 year old undergraduates from Temple University recruited for having a bipolar spectrum diagnosis. Mixed states captured 37.10% of all episodes examined in sample 1, yet only 13 (10.48%) of these episodes met available research criteria for mixed mood episodes. Factor analysis yielded two adequate models that fit the data; one model had two factors that aligned with traditional depressive and hypomanic symptomatology, and another model had three factors that aligned with hypothesized overactivity, inhibited depression, and irritable risk taking components of bipolar disorder. Latent class analysis allowed for examining observed patterns of responses within individuals, and then grouping heterogeneous groups of individuals into classes based on similarities on dimensions of interest, performance within dimensions, or both (Nylund, Bellmore, Nishina, & Graham, 2007). The latent class analysis showed that three classes best defined bipolar spectrum individuals in sample 1: low impulsivity, aggressive, and substance problems classes were obtained. The `aggressive' class was significantly more likely than the `low impulsivity' class to experience any mixed symptomatology, although a continuous measure of mixed symptoms did not yield significant differences between classes. Overall, the results from the current study support findings suggesting that mixed mood states are more commonly experienced than originally believed. These results extend previous studies to include individuals with bipolar spectrum disorders, not solely bipolar I and II disorders. These findings also suggest that non-treatment-seeking samples may have different types of mixed mood states than those seeking treatment. These findings add support to the literature that individuals with BSDs and comorbid substance use diagnoses are at increased risk for chronic illness, and show that these individuals are also more likely to experience mixed mood states than those without comorbid substance use diagnosis. Treatment providers should be aware of the complications that are inherent in bipolar individuals with comorbid substance diagnoses, as they are more likely to experience more episodes as well as mixed symptoms. / Psychology

Yes / Gambling research often refers to attitude and belief measurements to distinguish between problem and non-problem gamblers. Past studies also indicated that problem gamblers have a tendency to steeply discount rewards. We join both research streams and investigate the relationships between attitudes and beliefs on gambling addiction with the moderating effects of delay discounting using a novel methodological approach of double-hurdle model. We hereby differentiate the five subdimensions of the Gambling Attitude and Belief Scale (GABS): emotions, chasing, luck, attitudes and strategies. Findings show that emotional predispositions and chasing tendencies are positively related to the severity of online gambling addiction, independent of gamblers´ impulsivity. In contrast hereto, gambling attitudes act as inhibitor for gamblers willing to wait for some time to receive higher reward. Findings show that money-related impulsiveness influences the relationship between sub-dimensions of GABS and gambling addiction: Gambling attitudes and beliefs do not necessarily harm online gamblers but that their positive or negative relationship to addiction depends on online gamblers’ impulsivity.

<p dir="ltr"><b>ABSTRACT</b></p><p dir="ltr"><b>Background</b></p><p dir="ltr">Alcohol use disorder (AUD) poses negative health and social consequences, and is costly to affected individuals, loved ones, and society (Whiteford et al., 2013). It is a chronic neuropsychiatric disorder, associated with impaired decision making and altered functional connectivity patterns in the brain. Many studies have shown changes in the brain and behaviors after sustained abstinence using within-participant design or between-participant design comparing participants in recovery versus healthy controls (Muller & Meyerhoff, 2021; Wilcox et al., 2019). The purpose of this study was to investigate brain differences between participants in recovery and participants who are actively drinking. Specifically, this study evaluated within- and between-network resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) strengths in the context of the triple network model, which focuses on three key networks for complex perceptual, emotional and behavior processing as well as introspection, theory of mind and self-awareness; the salience network (SN), the central executive network (CEN), and the default mode network (DMN) (Menon, 2019). Moreover, this study assessed the relationship between impulsive choices in temporal decision-making and changes in resting-state functional connectivity patterns in these networks.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Methods</b></p><p dir="ltr">This study included two groups: the Recovery Group and the Drinking Group. The Recovery Group included participants who were starting recovery (within one year), met AUD diagnosis criteria or showed lifetime heavy drinking behaviors during a 12-month period, received treatment for substance use disorder for alcohol and/or illicit drugs, and showed ongoing intentions and efforts to maintain recovery (n=18, 6 females, mean age=32.4±7.4, 17 White, mean years of education=14.5±3.1, average days of abstinence prior to interview days=78.2±45.7). The Drinking Group included participants who were currently drinking that met diagnosis criteria for AUD or showed heavy drinking behaviors (n=49, 24 females, mean age=31.7±6.4, 29 White, mean years of education=13.6±2.3). Participants underwent an initial screen day where structured interviews were conducted to evaluate the number of lifetime AUD criteria and prior drinking patterns. On the study day, participants completed computer tasks and questionnaires prior to their functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) sessions. Participants in the Recovery Group received a virtual reality (VR) intervention targeting future self-continuity where they interacted with avatars that are versions of themselves (present self and future selves in recovery and relapsed) prior to MRI sessions. All participants completed baseline Delay Discounting (DD) to measure intertemporal choice preferences prior to the fMRI sessions and prior to the VR intervention for the Recovery Group.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Results</b></p><p dir="ltr">This study did not find any significant differences in within- and between-network rsFC strength of regions of interest of this study within the triple networks between participants in recovery and those who were actively drinking. The study found that participants in recovery showed a greater preference for delayed rewards (measured by DD task) compared to participants who are actively drinking. Additionally, measures of self-reported impulsivity and impulsive decision-making were associated with resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) strength between regions within the Salience Network (SN), and between the SN and Central Executive Network (CEN). Specifically, baseline delayed reward preference was positively associated with the rsFC between two SN hubs: left dorsal anterior insula (dAIC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). The rsFC between the left dACC (SN) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC; CEN) negatively associated with subscales (including negative urgency, lack of perseverance, and lack of premeditation) of self-reported impulsivity measured by the Urgency-Premeditation-Perseverance-Sensation Seeking-Positive Urgency (UPPS-P) impulsive behavior scale. Together, these results suggested that there was an emerging pattern where enhanced the rsFC strength in these regions associated with higher impulsive tendencies. The exploratory analysis showed that the rsFC strength between the right precuneus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) was related to abstinence length in participants in recovery.</p><p dir="ltr"><b>Conclusions</b></p><p dir="ltr">These findings indicated that participants in recovery exhibited higher delayed reward preference compared to participants who were actively drinking, alongside a significant relationship between measures of impulsivity and the rsFC within the SN and between the SN and CEN. These results highlighted the importance of the SN and its dynamic interaction with the CEN in self-reported impulsivity and impulsive decision making in addiction. Additionally, this study found that within-network functional connectivity strength in the DMN was related to abstinence length, suggesting that repairment in the rsFC strength within DMN might be integral to the process of addiction recovery.</p><p><br></p>

People make food choices based upon the motivation to consume foods that are reinforcing compared to alternatives that may be available.1 Delay discounting (DD) is a measure used to assess impulsivity, quantifying how people make decisions based on time to receive and amount of the choice presented. The food purchase task (FPT) assesses the demand for a food and how reinforcing this item is at various prices. Using a controlled feeding study design, 10 males (n=7 sedentary, n=10 endurance trained) consumed an iso-caloric, standard diet (55% carbohydrate, 30% fat, and 15% protein) for 10 days, followed by a high-fat diet (55% fat, 30% carbohydrate, 15% protein) for 5 days. DD, FPT, and Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) were assessed at three time points: baseline, after the standard diet/before high-fat diet, and after the high-fat diet. Discounting rates were significantly different at baseline between sedentary and endurance trained males, with the sedentary males having higher discounting rates (mean difference 1.43, p=.037). Discounting rates for the whole sample significantly decreased between baseline (time 1) and post-STD diet/before HFD (time 2), between time 2 and after the HFD (time 3), and between time 1 and time 3 (all indicated by p<0.05). No group differences were noted over time for demand elasticity, intensity, or TFEQ measures (all indicated by p<0.05). Results could be used to advance the understanding of factors that influence impulsive and unhealthy eating behaviors and inform the development of interventions that use reinforcers to positively influence eating behaviors. / MS / Choice is a fundamental part of life, and people make decisions based on a variety of different factors, such as the amount of effort required, perceived benefits and risks of the choice, what other options are available, and what resources the person has available to them (e.g., time, money). Many dietary and lifestyle choices are unhealthy, such as choosing to consume fast food in excess or to not engage in exercise. About 2/3 of Americans are overweight, and 1/3 are obese, and about 1 in 5 of American adults meet the guidelines recommended by the Centers for Disease Control of engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous physical activity per week. Understanding the factors that influence unhealthy eating and lack of physical activity is crucial in order to develop effective programs that focus on changing these behaviors, as weight-loss or physical activity programs often require people to delay the immediate gratification of food in order to achieve optimal health outcomes. The present study investigates how a diet high in fat and exercise habits influence how people value rewards and make decisions. Delayed discounting is a tool used to determine much a person is influenced by immediate gratification of a reward versus waiting for a larger reward of greater worth that is available in the future. The food purchase task is used to quantify the reinforcing value of a food item by determining how much of a favorite snack food a person would purchase by depending on the price. Lastly, eating habits such as dietary restraint or loss of control are quantified by a questionnaire. Results could improve the understanding of factors that influence unhealthy decisions and support the creation of programs that aim to improve how people view and value future health outcomes.

Background: Persistent stress contributes to the onset and maintenance of problem gambling (PG), increasing risks for physiological disturbances. However, minimal research examines acute stress effects and relationships with PG features such as impulsivity or gambling urges. Purpose: The current study examines multiple facets of acute subjective and physiological stress responses in PG. Stress effects on gambling urges and relationships with impulsivity are also explored. Methods: A PG (n=21) and healthy control (HC; n=21) group were exposed to acute psychosocial stress. Saliva samples were collected while participants completed self-report measures of mood and gambling urges. Gambling urges, salivary cortisol (sC), salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), and subjective stress reactivity and recovery were compared within and between groups from baseline up to an hour following stress. Relationships between trait impulsivity, gambling urges, and all aspects of the acute stress response were examined. Results: The PG group showed blunted sC reactivity but reported heightened mood disturbances compared to HCs, while sAA levels did not differ between groups. Within PG and HC groups, sAA had a more rapid acute stress onset than sC, but between-marker differences were pronounced in PG. Self-reported gambling urges were high among PG participants but remained relatively unchanged following acute stress. Impulsivity was positively associated with gambling urges, however, it was not correlated with the acute stress response. Conclusions: This study provides a novel and wide-ranging assessment of the acute stress response in PG, for which research is currently limited. These results indicate that high stress in PG contributes to multi-faceted alterations of the acute stress response relative to HCs. Self-reported gambling urges are elevated and associated with greater trait impulsivity in PG but are unaffected by acute stress exposure. Our findings provide insight into acute stress processing dysfunction in PG and have implications for potential harms, such as increased suicide risk. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Chronic or continuous life stress can increase the risk of developing and sustaining gambling problems. The current study assessed the effects of a 20-minute stressful task on mood, physiological reactions, the desire to gamble, and their relationships with impulsivity in healthy individuals compared to those with problem gambling (PG). Results showed that after the stressor, the PG group reported more negative mood, but physiological reactions were reduced when compared to healthy participants. In individuals with PG, a greater desire to gamble was correlated with being more impulsive. Overall, our findings show that the long-term stress typically experienced by individuals with PG can affect their mental and physiological reactions to temporary stressors. Additionally, more impulsive individuals show a greater desire to gamble, which may contribute to problematic gambling behaviours. Future research should assess the life impacts of chronic stress in PG, such as the risk of gambling relapse and suicide.

At any given moment in time, there are people complying with fraudulent requests (i.e. scams) on the Internet. While the incidence rates are low (between five and ten percent of the population becoming victims on a yearly basis), the financial and emotional consequences can be high. In this Thesis we composed a unified theory of which factors made individuals more likely to comply with scams and what psychological mechanisms are unwittingly employed by con-men to make their (illegitimate marketing) offers more enticing. The strongest overall predictor of scam compliance (i.e. the extent to which an individual is likely to comply with fraudulent requests) was the level of self-control, regardless of the observed stage of a scam. On the basis of previous research, we postulated and have empirically shown that falling for a scam is a 3-stage process (i.e. assessing a scam to be plausible - plausiblity, responding to scammers - responded and, finally, losing utility to them – lost out). Taking this paradigm into account, we analysed the three stages in separate investigations and tested the viability of various psychological factors that play a role in them. We hypothesized that attitudes towards risky choices would play a role in finding an Internet scam plausible and thus started our investigation by transferring one of the classic economic psychological theories (i.e. Prospect Theory) into a virtual setting and demonstrated that risk preferences remain unchanged between concrete and virtual settings. Our investigation showed that attitudes towards risk are similar across virtual and concrete domains, but did not yield a reliable psychometric scale measuring risk preferences. As a corollary, in Chapter 3, we investigated psychological mechanisms that influence risky preferences as applied to all three stages of scam compliance. The empirical investigation in Chapter 3 of the present Thesis focused on social psychological mechanisms of persuasion. A scale of susceptibility to persuasion was developed, validated and then applied to the phenomena of scam compliance in two studies. Four reliable factors contributing to susceptibility to persuasion emerged: influence of authority, social influence, self-control and the need for consistency. The susceptibility to persuasion scale was then used to predict overall lifetime (study 1) and time-limited (study 2) scam compliance across the three stages of scams. Social Influence weakly predicted the plausibility stage in study 1, while strongly predicting the response stage in study 2. The need for consistency strongly predicted response stages in both studies. While compliance with requests from authorities did not predict responses to any of the stages in study 1, it weakly predicted the plausibility of a scam and strongly predicted responding to it in study 2. Weak self-control was a significant predictor of losing funds in study 1 and a strong predictor of responding to scams in study 2. As lack of self-control (as a personality trait) emerged as one of the significant predictors of scam compliance, this led us to infer that there were other personality traits that would contribute to understanding scam compliance. That became the topic of Chapter 4 of the present Thesis. In Chapter 4, we used the five factor model of personality, a brief self-control scale and the UPPS impulsive behaviour scale to measure the impact of personality traits on scam compliance in the response stage. Results showed that extraversion, openness, self-control, premeditation, sensation seeking and (negative) urgency had an influence on the response rates to fraudulent offers. Lack of self-control (as a personality trait) again emerged as a strong predictor of overall scam compliance, which led us to infer that self-control as a cognitive state would also contribute to measuring scam compliance in general and in specific types of fraud. The investigation reported in Chapter 3 showed fraudulent Internet auctions to be an effective scam. As a consequence of these two findings, in Chapter 5, we investigated the impact of self-regulatory fatigue on compliance with fraudulent Internet auctions. In the empirical investigation in Chapter 5 180 respondents in two groups were exposed to a cognitive task designed to be ego-depleting and then to a constructed fraudulent Internet auction. They were asked a series of questions concerned with the likelihood of them purchasing a desired item (i.e. the third stage of a scam) and its appeal to them. We found no evidence that lowered self-control (as a state) had any impact on the appeal of fraudulent offer or the likelihood of purchasing it. We also demonstrated that the perception of risk in the fraudulent Internet auctions is most strongly influenced by the feedback mechanisms and the sellers’ ability to use correct English. In the conclusion to the present Thesis we discussed the implications of our empirical investigations and constructed a fictional fraudulent offer that would be effective according to our research. It should, for example, be based on the advance fee schemes and should be delivered over the Internet to reach the most potential victims. Once we had created an outline of an effective scam, we used that as our starting point to suggest mechanisms that would be effective in resisting it. For example, individuals could employ heuristics in a better way or conduct reality checks; and software toolkits that would help in resisting scams could be developed on the basis of our findings. We also discussed future research directions (obtaining larger samples, focusing on specific types of scams and specific populations; and others) and general implications of our findings.

Obesity and drug abuse share common neural circuitries including the mesocoticolimbic and striatal dopamine reward system. In the current study, a rat model of diet-induced obesity (DIO) was used to determine striatal dopamine function, impulsivity and motivation as neurobehavioral outcomes and predictors of obesity. For the outcome study, rats were randomly assigned a high-fat (HF) or a low-fat (LF) diet for 8 wk. Following the 8-wk HF-diet exposure, rats were segregated into obesity-prone and obesity-resistant groups based on maximum and minimum body weight gain, respectively, and neurobehavioral outcomes were evaluated. For the predictor study, neurobehavioral antecedents were evaluated prior to an 8-wk high-fat diet exposure and were correlated with subsequent body weight gain. Striatal D2 receptor density was determined by in vitro kinetic analysis of [3H]raclopride binding. DAT function was determined using in vitro kinetic analysis of [3H]dopamine uptake, methamphetamine-evoked [3H]dopamine overflow and no net flux in vivo microdialysis. DAT cell-surface expression was determined using biotinylation and Western blotting. Impulsivity and food-motivated behavior were determined using a delay discounting task and progressive ratio schedule for food-reinforcers, respectively. Relative to obesity-resistant, obesity-prone rats exhibited 18% greater body weight, 42% lower striatal D2 receptor density, 30% lower total DAT expression, 40% lower in vitro and in vivo DAT function, 45% greater extracellular dopamine concentration, and 2-fold greater methamphetamine-evoked [3H]dopamine overflow. Obesity-prone rats exhibited higher motivation for food, but were less impulsive relative to obesity-resistant rats. Neurobehavioral antecedents of DIO included greater motivation for high-fat reinforcers in rats subsequently shown to be obesity-prone relative to obesity-resistant. Impulsivity, DAT function and extracellular dopamine concentration did not predict the DIO-phenotype. Thus, motivation for food is linked to both initiation and maintenance of obesity. Importantly, obesity results in decreased striatal DAT function, which may underlie the maintenance of compulsive food intake in obesity.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Master of Science / Department of Psychology / Kimberly Kirkpatrick / Several studies have examined timing and impulsive choice behavior in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) as a possible pre-clinical model for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). However, the strain has not been specifically selected for the traits of ADHD and as a result their appropriateness as a model has been questioned. This study investigated whether SHR would exhibit timing deficits, poor reward processing and impulsive behavior in comparison to the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) control strain in a discrete-trial choice task. In addition, as a first approach to find another potential animal model of ADHD, we evaluated a strain that has shown high levels of impulsivity, the Lewis (LEW) rats and compared them with the Wistar (WIS) rats. In the first phase of the experiment, rats could chose a lever associated with a Smaller-sooner (SS) reward of 1 pellet delivered after 10 s and a Larger-later (LL) reward of 2 pellets delivered after 30 s. Subsequently, the rats were exposed to different phases, where the reward on the LL choice was increased to 3 and 4 pellets and where the delay to the SS choice was increased to 15 and 20 s. The SHR and WKY strains did not differ in their timing or choice behavior. In comparison to WIS, LEW showed timing deficits in both manipulations and deficits in choice behavior in the delay manipulation, indicating deficits in time processing. Individual differences among the rat within a strain accounted a significant proportion of the total variance and contributed more variance than the strain of the rat. These results indicate that the SHR and LEW strains are not sufficiently homogeneous with respect to impulsive choice behavior to be considered as viable models for impulse control disorders such as ADHD.

Le trouble déficitaire de l’attention avec hyperactivité ( T.D.A.H.) consiste en l’association de trois syndromes : l’hyperactivité motrice, le trouble de l’attention et l’impulsivité. Les enfants hyperactifs ont souvent des difficultés d’apprentissage. L’attachement entre la mère et l’enfant est un besoin primaire. Les types d’attachement à la mère sont « sécure » s’il y a présence sécurisante du parent ou « insécure ». Les troubles vont engendrer un attachement dysconfiant. Y a-t-il un lien entre attachement et hyperactivité ? Notre étude s’est effectuée à partir de la passation d’un questionnaire et de vingt cinq entretiens de mères d’enfants hyperactifs à la Réunion. Nous avons observé que des difficultés dans l’acquisition de la lecture sont présentes chez 76% de la population étudiée. Il semble probable qu’un attachement dysconfiant se soit développé entre les mères et les enfants hyperactifs. / ( T.D.A.H.) is an association of 3 symptoms: moving hyperactivity, attention disorder and impulsivity. Hyperactives children haven’t some difficulties in learning. Attachment between mother and children is a primary need. Attachment can be secure or insecure. Is there a relation between hyperactivity and attachment? Our study in Reunion Island, concern 25 hyperactives children mother’s interviews with a questionnary. In this population, 76% of children haven’t reading difficulty and there is an insecure attachment between mother and hyperactive child.