Thesis (M.E.-Res.)--University of Wollongong, 2008. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references: p. 164-179.

Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is an international project to build the world’s largest and most sensitive radio telescope interferometer. It will consist of thousands of antennas distributed over many kilometers, with the hosting country being either South Africa or Australia. Various pathfinders have been initiated to demonstrate the technologies needed to implement the SKA. The astronomy community has defined five Key Science Projects (KSP), which are the drivers for the SKA. The science goals determine the technical requirements needed to design SKA systems. Many years of planning and development are still needed in order to meet to the requirements of such a large and complex project. This thesis aims to present the various SKA pathfinder systems in terms of their application to the SKA key science projects, with main focus that of pulsar observations. In order to achieve this, a thorough overview of basic radio astronomy principles and techniques is presented, followed by a detailed look at the various pathfinders. Throughout the work, aspects of pulsar observations are given particular attention with the goal of designing optimal systems for the SKA. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is ’n internasionale projek om die wêreld se grootste en mees sensitiewe radio teleskoop interferometer te bou. Dit sal bestaan uit duisende antennas versprei oor etlike kilometers, met die gasheer land óf Suid-Afrika óf Australië. Verskeie koersbepalers is geïnisieer om die tegnologie te demonstreer wat benodig is om die SKA te implementeer. Die astronomie gemeenskap het vyf sleutel wetenskap projekte (KSP) gedefinieër wat dien as die drywers vir die SKA. Die wetenskap doelwitte bepaal die tegniese vereistes wat nodig is om SKA stelsels to ontwerp. Talle jare van beplanning en ontwikkeling word steeds benodig om te voldoen aan die vereistes van so ’n groot en komplekse projek. Hierdie tesis het ten doel die aanbieding van verskeie SKA koersbepaler stelsels in terme van hulle aanwending tot die SKA sleutel wetenskap projekte, met hoof fokus op die van pulsar waarnemings. Om dit te behaal, word ’n deeglike oorsig van basiese radio astronomie beginsels en tegnieke aangebied, gevolg deur ’n gedetailleerde kyk na die verskeie koersbepalers. Regdeur die werk word spesifieke aandag gegee aan aspekte van pulsar waarnemings met die doel om optimale stelsels vir die SKA te ontwerp.

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Le sujet de thèse porte sur la maîtrise et la mesure des formes neuronales, “maîtrise” du fait de l’emploi de micropatterns adhésifs permettant un contrôle des formes cellulaires en deux dimensions, “mesure” du fait de notre volonté d’accéder au volume ainsi qu’à la masse sèche de la cellule par l’emploi de deux techniques complémentaires faisant appel à l’interférométrie ou à des mesures de fluorescence en espace confiné.La question biologique au cœur de cette thèse est celle de la régulation par le neurone de diverses caractéristiques morphologiques comme sa longueur, son volume en lien avec l’établissement de la polarité axo-dendritique. Ces aspects sont développés et approfondis au cours de cette thèse des points de vue expérimentaux mais aussi théoriques (coll. Nir Gov, Institut Weizmann).Ce sujet de thèse multidisciplinaire porte ainsi des aspects de biologie et d’instrumentation physique. / The thesis deals with the control and the measurement of neuronal shapes, "control" by using adhesive micropatterns allowing to constrain cells shape in two dimensions, "measurement" by using either interferometry or fluorescence measurements in confined spaces to gain knowledge on cell dry mass and volume.The biological question at the heart of this thesis is the regulation by the neuron of its various morphological characteristics such as length, volume, in association with the establishment of the axo-dendritic polarity. These aspects are developed and deepened in the course of this thesis on experimental but also theoretical (coll. Nir Gov, Weizmann Institute) point of views.This multidisciplinary thesis topic thus builds on biological aspects and physical instrumentation.

Les disques de gaz et de poussières entourant les étoiles jeunes sont d'une importance capitale pour notre compréhension de la formation planétaire. Les observations de ces disques permettent d'avoir un niveau de détails sans précédent sur ces derniers et apportent des contraintes toujours plus fortes sur leur structure et sur les modèles de formation planétaire. Les parties de ces disques les plus proches de l'étoile sont néanmois encore assez mal connues; en effet, pour pouvoir résoudre ces parties internes pour les étoiles jeunes les plus proches de la Terre, un télescope de 100 mètres de diamètre serait nécessaire, ce qui est technologiquement et financièrement impossible actuellement. L'interférométrie permet de contourner ce problème en combinant la lumière de paires de télescopes, permettant ainsi un plus grand pouvoir de résolution. Ma thèse à portée sur l'observation et l'étude des parties internes des disques circumstellaire d'étoiles de type T Tauri. Une étude statistique sur l'environnement de ces étoiles y est présentée, ainsi que leur modélisation par un modèle prenant en compte les mécanisme d'émission et de diffusion de la lumiere par la poussière. La modélisation de disque circumstellaires par un code de transfert radiatif et en combinant des données interférométriques, photométriques et spectroscopiques est aussi abordée. / Observing gas and dusty disks around young stars are of utmost importance for our knowledge about planetary formation. Observations of these disks bring unprecedented details about their structure and composition, and provide stronger and stronger constrains on planetary formation models. However, the inner parts of these disk are still barely known. indeed, a 100 m diameter telescope would be required in order to resolve these inner region, for the closest young stars; nowaday, the construction of such telescope is impossible technologically and financially. By combining the light of pairs of telescopes, the interferometry technique is able to reach the sufficient resolving power, and permits us to observe the inner parts of circumstellar disks. My thesis has been focused on the observation and study of the inner part of TTauri's circumstellar disks. I present in this manuscript a statistical study on the environment around these stars, along with its modeling by taking into account thermal emission and light scattering of the disk. Finally, I present a more complete modelling for some of these stars, done by constraining spectroscopic, interferometric and photometric datasets with a radiative transfer code.

Cette thèse porte sur la conception et la réalisation d’une nouvelle expérience d’interféromètre atomique au SYRTE. Elle permettra de réaliser des mesures ultrasensibles du gradient vertical de gravité. Cette expérience fonctionnera à terme en utilisant comme source des atomes ultra-froids, préparés sur une puce à atomes. Elle utilisera comme séparatrices des transitions multiphotoniques, obtenues par diffraction de Bragg d’ordre élevé. Le transport des atomes sera assuré par des réseaux optiques en mouvement. Une première partie du dispositif expérimental a été assemblée et son fonctionnement a été validé en réalisant un interféromètre dual. Cet interféromètre est réalisé sur deux ensembles d’atomes produits successivement à partir de la même source d’atomes froids, et interrogés par une même paire de faisceaux Raman. Une nouvelle méthode d’extraction de la phase différentielle a été démontrée expérimentalement. Elle repose sur l’exploitation des corrélations entre les mesures de phase des interféromètres et une estimation de la phase sismique fournie par la mesure annexe d’un capteur classique. / This thesis is about the design and realisation of a new atomic interferometer experiment at SYRTE. It will allow ultra-sensitive measurements of the vertical gradient of gravity. This experiment will work using ultra-cold atoms as a source, prepared on an atom chip. It will use large momentum transfer beam-splitter, obtained by high order Bragg diffraction. The transport of atoms will be provided by moving optical lattices. A first part of the experimental setup was assembled and its operation was validated by producing a dual interferometer. This interferometer is performed on two atomic clouds produced successively from the same source of cold atoms, and interrogated by the same pair of Raman beams. A new method of differential phase extraction has been experimentally demonstrated. It is based on the exploitation of the correlations between the interferometer phase measurements and the estimation of the seismic phase provided by an additional classical sensor.

Inspection of optical components is essential to assure the quality and performance of optical systems. Evaluation of optical components includes metrology measurements of surface topography. It also requires optical measurements including refractive index, thin film thickness, reflectivity and transmission. The dispersion characteristics of optical constants including refractive index are also required. Hence, various instruments are used to make these measurements in research laboratories and for quality assurance. Clearly, it would be a significant advantage and cost saving if a technique was developed that could combine surface metrology with optical measurements. {Coherence Scanning Interferometry} (CSI) (also referred to as {Scanning White Light Interferometry} (SWLI)) has been used widely to measure surface topography with sub-nanometre vertical resolution. One of the benefits of the CSI is that the technique is non-contacting and hence non-destructive. Thus the test surfaces are not affected by the measurement using a CSI instrument whereas damage to the surfaces can occur when using traditional contact methods such as stylus profilometry. However use of CSI is geometrically limited to small areas ($\lesssim 10 \times 10$ mm) with gentle slopes ($\lesssim \ang{40}$) because of the numerical aperture of objective lens whereas stylus profilometry works well with larger areas and higher slopes due to the range of motion of the gauge and the traverse unit. Since the CSI technique is optical and involves light reflection and interference it is possible to extend the technique for the measurement of the thickness of transparent films, the roughness of surfaces buried beneath thin films or interfacial surfaces. It may also be used to determine spectral complex refractive index. This thesis provides an analytical framework of new methods to obtain complex refractive index in a visible light domain and interfacial surface roughness (ISR). It also provides experimental verification of these new capabilities using actual thin film model systems. The original Helical Complex Field (HCF) function theory is presented followed by its existing extensions that enable determination of complex refractive index and interfacial surface roughness. Further theoretical extensions of the HCF theory are also provided: A novel theory to determine the refractive index of a (semi-)transparent film is developed to address the constraint of the current HCF theory that restricted its use to opaque materials; Another novel theory is provided to measure ISR with noise compensation, which avoids erroneous surface roughness caused by the numerical optimisation affected by the existence of noise. The effectiveness of the ISR measurement with noise compensation has been verified using a number of computer simulations. Stylus profilometry is a well established method to provide a profile and has been used extensively as a 'reference' for other techniques. It normally provides a profile on which the roughness and the waviness are computed. Extension of the stylus profilometry technique to areal measurement of asymmetrical surfaces, namely raster scan measurement, requires a system to include error compensation between each traverse. The system errors and the random errors need to be separately understood particular when the measurement of a surface with nanometre-order accuracy is required. In this thesis a mathematical model to locate a stylus tip considering five mechanical errors occurring in a common raster scan profilometer is provided. Based on the model, the simulator which provides an areal measurement of a sphere was developed. The simulator clarified the relationship between the Zernike coefficients obtained from the form residual and the size of the errors in the form of partial derivatives of Zernike coefficients with respect to the errors. This provides theoretical support to the empirical knowledge of the relationship between the coefficients and the errors. Furthermore, a method to determine the size of errors directly from Zernike coefficients is proposed supported by simulations. Some of the error parameters were accurately determined avoiding iterative computation with this method whereas the errors are currently being determined by iterative computation.

This thesis investigates the performance and improves a double color interferometer setup, absolutely calibrates a line radiation Balmer H-alpha measurement setup, and uses measurements from both setups to estimate the particle confinement time of a plasma. The double colour interferometer at the magnetic confinement plasma device EXTRAP T2R measures the line integrated electron density of the plasma. Electron density is an important parameter in fusion plasma diagnostics but the interferometer at EXTRAP T2R have had several problems. The interferometer setup was changed as follows: A piezo phase shifter was added, the beam expander was adjusted with the help of thermal image plates, and the electronics setup was rewired to remove interferences. The setup for Balmer H-alpha line radiation measurements was calibrated and characterized. The particle confinement time was estimated using Abel inversion to produce radial profiles of electron density, electron temperature and H-alpha irradiance. The interferometer upgrades did not solve all the problems, but the electron density measurements are now reliable up to around 10 – 20 ms. Since the interferometer only has one channel the electron density profile could not be determined reliably. However, the particle confinement time was estimated for two possible electron density profiles and the results agree with previous studies. / Fusionsvetenskap strävar efter att producera en ny, effektiv energikälla. I och med den ökande energikonsumtionen får fusionsvetenskap en allt viktigare roll i samhället. Kärnfusion har stor potential som energikälla, men att utvinna dess energi kommer med lika stora tekniska utmaningar. I det här projektet tacklas en av dessa utmaningar; att mäta elektrontätheten och joniseringshastigheten i ett plasma. Detta utfördes på EXTRAP T2R, ett magnetiskt inneslutningssystem för plasma på Alfvén laboratoriet, Kungliga Tekniska högskolan, Stockholm. Projektet behandlar två olika mätinstrument: En interferometer som mäter elektrontätheten i plasmat och en H-alphaexperimentuppställning som mäter joniseringshastigheten i plasmat. Interferometern har uppgraderats och justerats för att ge mer tillförlitliga mätningar. Den behöver förbättras ytterligare men kan ger nu tillförlitliga täthetsmätningar i början av plasma-skott. H$\alpha$-experimentuppställningen har karakteriserats och kalibrerats. Genom att mäta elektrontätheten och joniseringshastigheten kan partikelinneslutningstiden uppskattas. Partikelinneslutningstiden är den genomsnittliga tiden innan en partikel lämnar plasmat via en av många processer. Denna uppskattning baserades på två möjliga täthetsprofiler i plasmat eftersom en fullständig mätning skulle kräva flera interferometrar. Trots detta så stämmer uppskattningen väl överens med tidigare studier.

Les gyromètres Sagnac atomiques ont un grand potentiel en raison de leur sensibilité élevée à la rotation. Le gyromètre atomique du SYRTE utilise des atomes de césium refroidis par lasers. À l'aide de transitions Raman stimulées, nous formons un interféromètre de type Mach-Zehnder replié. L'instrument permet d'atteindre un temps d'interrogation maximal de 800 ms, ce qui correspond à une aire Sagnac de 11 cm², la plus grande démontrée pour un interféromètre atomique. Les objectifs de ma thèse sont de tirer au mieux parti du potentiel de l'instrument, et d'étudier des modes d'interrogations jointif et jointif entrelacé. C'est une étape importante pour l'application de tels instruments entre autres en navigation inertielle. Je décris les méthodes mises en place pour pousser la sensibilité court terme et mené une première étude détaillée des effets systématiques. Nous avons démontré une stabilité à court terme de 30 nrad/s/Hz^1/2 en interrogation jointive triplement entrelacée, ce qui est une amélioration d'un facteur 3 de l'état de l'art pour les gyromètres à atomes froids. L'état de l'art a également été amélioré d'un facteur 4 à long terme avec une stabilité de 0,23 nrad/s en 30 000 s. / Sagnac atomic gyroscopes have great potential due to their high sensitivity to rotation. The SYRTE atomic gyroscope uses laser cooled cesium atoms. Thank to stimulated Raman transitions, we form a folded Mach-Zehnder type interferometer. The instrument allows interrogation times up to 800~ms, which corresponds to a 11~cm$^2$ Sagnac area, the largest demonstrated for atom interferometers. This is a major step toward the use of such instruments in inertial navigation. I describe the methods implemented to push the short-term sensitivity and performed the first detailed study of systematics, such as those linked to light-shifts due to the preparation and the detection of the atoms and those linked to misalignment of parallelism of the mirrors and of the trajectories of the atoms. I demonstrated a short-term stability of 30~nrad.s$^{-1}$.Hz$^{-1/2}$ in triple interleaved joint interrogation which improves the state of the art by a factor 3. The state of the art has also been improved by a factor 5 in long-term with a 0,2~nrad.s$^{-1}$ stability in 30~000~s.

This thesis is concerned with (a) the development of full-field, multi-axis and phase contrast wavelength scanning interferometer, using an electronically tuned CW Ti:Sa laser for the study of depth resolved measurements in composite materials such as GFRPs and (b) the development of temporal phase unwrapping algorithms for depth re-solved measurements. Item (a) was part of the ultimate goal of successfully extracting the 3-D, depth-resolved, constituent parameters (Young s modulus E, Poisson s ratio v etc.) that define the mechanical behaviour of composite materials like GFRPs. Considering the success of OCT as an imaging modality, a wavelength scanning interferometer (WSI) capable of imaging the intensity AND the phase of the interference signal was proposed as the preferred technique to provide the volumetric displacement/strain fields (Note that displacement/strain fields are analogous to phase fields and thus a phase-contrast interferometer is of particular interest in this case). These would then be passed to the VFM and yield the sought parameters provided the loading scheme is known. As a result, a number of key opto-mechanical hardware was developed. First, a multiple channel (x6) tomographic interferometer realised in a Mach-Zehnder arrangement was built. Each of the three channels would provide the necessary information to extract the three orthogonal displacement/strain components while the other three are complementary and were included in the design in order to maximize the penetration depth (sample illuminated from both sides). Second, a miniature uniaxial (tensile and/or compression) loading machine was designed and built for the introduction of controlled and low magnitude displacements. Last, a rotation stage for the experimental determination of the sensitivity vectors and the re-registration of the volumetric data from the six channels was also designed and built. Unfortunately, due to the critical failure of the Ti:Sa laser data collection using the last two items was not possible. However, preliminary results at a single wavelength suggested that the above items work as expected. Item (b) involved the development of an optical sensor for the dynamic monitoring of wavenumber changes during a full 100 nm scan. The sensor is comprised of a set of four wedges in a Fizeau interferometer setup that became part of the multi-axis interferometer (7th channel). Its development became relevant due to the large amount of mode-hops present during a full scan of the Ti:Sa source. These are associated to the physics of the laser and have the undesirable effect of randomising the signal and thus preventing successful depth reconstructions. The multi-wedge sensor was designed so that it provides simultaneously high wavenumber change resolution and immunity to the large wavenumber jumps from the Ti:Sa. The analysis algorithms for the extraction of the sought wavenumber changes were based on 2-D Fourier transform method followed by temporal phase unwrapping. At first, the performance of the sensor was tested against that of a high-end commercial wavemeter for a limited scan of 1nm. A root mean square (rms) difference in measured wavenumber shift between the two of ~4 m-1 has been achieved, equivalent to an rms wavelength shift error of ~0.4 pm. Second, by resampling the interference signal and the wavenumber-change axis onto a uniformly sampled k-space, depth resolutions that are close to the theoretical limits were achieved for scans of up to 37 nm. Access of the full 100 nm range that is characterised by wavelength steps down to picometers level was achieved by introducing a number of improvements to the original temporal phase unwrapping algorithm reported in ref [1] tailored to depth resolved measurements. These involved the estimation and suppression of intensity background artefacts, improvements on the 2-D Fourier transform phase detection based on a previously developed algorithm in ref [2] and finally the introduction of two modifications to the original TPU. Both approaches are adaptive and involve signal re-referencing at regular intervals throughout the scan. Their purpose is to compensate for systematic and non-systematic errors owing to a small error in the value of R (a scaling factor applied to the lower sensitivity wedge phase-change signal used to unwrap the higher sensitivity one), or small changes in R with wavelength due to the possibility of a mismatch in the refractive dispersion curves of the wedges and/or a mismatch in the wedge angles. A hybrid approach combining both methods was proposed and used to analyse the data from each of the four wedges. It was found to give the most robust results of all the techniques considered, with a clear Fourier peak at the expected frequency, with significantly reduced spectral artefacts and identical depth resolutions for all four wedges of 2.2 μm measured at FWHM. The ability of the phase unwrapping strategy in resolving the aforementioned issues was demonstrated by successfully measuring the absolute thickness of four fused silica glasses using real experimental data. The results were compared with independent micrometer measurements and showed excellent agreement. Finally, due to the lack of additional experimental data and in an attempt to justify the validity of the proposed temporal phase unwrapping strategy termed as the hybrid approach, a set of simulations that closely matched the parameters characterising the real experimental data set analysed were produced and were subsequently analysed. The results of this final test justify that the various fixes included in the hybrid approach have not evolved to solve the problems of a particular data set but are rather of general nature thereby, highlighting its importance for PC-WSI applications concerning the processing and analysis of large scans.