Previous studies revealed that, upon exposure to hypoxia, tumour cells acquire resistance to the cytolytic activity of IL-2-activated lymphocytes. The MHC class I chain-related (MIC) molecules – comprised of MICA and MICB – are ligands for the activating NKG2D receptor on Natural Killer (NK) and CD8+ T cells. MIC-NKG2D interactions lead to the activation of NK and CD8+ T cells and the subsequent lysis of the tumour cells. The study also showed that the mechanism of the hypoxia-mediated immune escape involves the shedding of MIC, specifically MICA, from the tumour cell surface. The objective of the present study was to determine whether the shedding of MICA requires the expression of hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a transcription factor that regulates cellular adaptations to hypoxia. Exposure to hypoxia (0.5% O2 vs. 20% O2) led to the shedding of MIC from the surface of MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells and DU-145 human prostate cancer cells as determined by flow cytometry. Knockdown of HIF-1α mRNA using siRNA technology resulted in inhibition of HIF-1α accumulation under hypoxic conditions as determined by Western blot analysis. Parallel study revealed that knockdown of HIF-1α also blocked the shedding of MICA from the surface of MDA-MB-231 cells exposed to hypoxia. These results indicate that HIF-1 is required for the hypoxia-mediated shedding of MICA and, consequently, that HIF-1 may play an important role in tumour immune escape. Ongoing studies aim to determine the HIF-1 target genes involved in the shedding of MICA under hypoxia. / Thesis (Master, Anatomy & Cell Biology) -- Queen's University, 2009-08-19 21:09:13.707

The interactions between tumour cells and cells of the immune system are important in the natural evolution of cancer, and the acquired immune system plays an integral role in cancer immune escape. B7-H3 and B7-H1 ligands provide coinhibitory signals to T cells resulting in T cell anergy or apoptosis and their expression has been shown to increase in cancer cells. Tumour hypoxia (oxygen concentration below physiological level) is a major contributor to the spread of cancer and resistance to radiation and chemotherapy. We proposed that hypoxia results in the upregulation of the B7 molecules B7-H3 and B7-H1. Furthermore, studies in our laboratory have shown that acquisition of malignant properties in tumour cells exposed to hypoxia can be inhibited by low concentrations of nitric oxide mimetic agents such as glyceryl trinitrate (GTN). Using cultured breast and prostate cancer cells, we investigated whether the hypoxia-inducible factor HIF-1α, would mediate an upregulation of these ligands. Using a mouse model, we investigated the effect of GTN on tumour growth in vivo. For the in vitro studies, we exposed MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells and DU-145 prostate cancer cells to standard culture conditions, hypoxic conditions, or 100 μM CoCl2 (stabilizes HIF-1α) for 24 hours. Our findings indicate that B7-H3 mRNA was upregulated in hypoxia (P = 0.0101). Contrary to our hypothesis, B7-H3 protein was not upregulated in hypoxia. Interestingly, increased B7-H1 protein expression correlated with increased HIF-1α expression (r2=0.48, P<0.0001), and HIF-1α bound to the hypoxia response element (HRE) of B7-H1. These results indicate a role for HIF-1α in the upregulation of B7-H1 levels in MDA-MB-231 cells. While in vitro studies indicated no effect of GTN, a study using female BALB/c mice injected with 4T1 mammary carcinoma cells resulted in a decrease in tumour volume in the GTN treated mice. Together, these results indicate a novel role for HIF-1α in the up-regulation of B7-H1 on cancer cells, thus potentially contributing to immune escape of cancer cells and additionally, a role for GTN as a possible breast cancer therapy. / Thesis (Master, Anatomy & Cell Biology) -- Queen's University, 2012-08-15 11:10:06.237

A key step in malignant progression is the acquired ability of tumour cells to escape immune-mediated lysis. A potential mechanism by which tumour cells avoid immune destruction involves the shedding of MHC Class I Chain-Related Protein A (MICA), a Natural Killer (NK) cell-activating ligand, from the tumour cell membrane. Hypoxia has been shown to cause increased MICA shedding; however, this hypoxia-induced effect can be attenuated by pharmacological activation of the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent nitric oxide (NO)-signalling pathway in cancer cells. The primary objective of the present study was to determine whether treatment of tumour-bearing nude mice with the NO-mimetic glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) attenuates in vivo tumour growth and if so, whether this effect is dependent on the presence of an intact NK cell compartment. Results indicated that continuous transdermal administration of GTN (1.8 µg/h) can significantly attenuate the growth of transplanted human DU-145 prostate tumours but that this effect of GTN is lost in mice whose NK-cells have been depleted. Tumours and serum from the mice in this study were analysed to determine whether GTN treatment had any effect on the expression levels of proteins integral to the proposed MICA shedding mechanism; however, the results of these studies were inconclusive. As phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibition represents a potential method to enhance NO-signalling, experiments were performed to determine whether treatment with the PDE5/6 inhibitor zaprinast could also attenuate hypoxia-induced MICA shedding and decrease in vivo growth of DU-145 tumours. Results demonstrated that treatment with zaprinast (10 mg/kg) significantly attenuates MICA shedding in DU-145 cancer cells and significantly decreases in vivo tumour growth. Taken together, the results of these experiments indicate that GTN attenuates tumour growth by sensitising tumour cells to innate immunity, likely by increasing membrane-associated tumour cell MICA levels through the reactivation of NO-signalling, and that zaprinast decreases tumour growth likely through a similar mechanism. These findings are important because they indicate that agents capable of reactivating NO-signalling, such as NO-mimetics and PDE inhibitors, can potentially be used as immunosensitisers in the treatment and/or prevention of cancer. / Thesis (Master, Anatomy & Cell Biology) -- Queen's University, 2011-04-18 10:43:28.077

The adaptive immune response forms an essential part of the cancer immuno-editing process, whereby nascent malignant cells are detected and destroyed prior to forming tumours. The process is tightly controlled to minimise collateral damage to healthy tissue. One of the mechanisms evolved for this purpose and frequently co-opted by malignant cells is the creation of a microenvironment scarce in essential amino-acids through the use of catabolic enzymes such as Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) , responsible for the rate-limiting step in tryptophan catabolism. The evolutionary conserved GCN2 and mTORC1 pathways respond to amino-acid starvation by triggering emergency homeostatic response programmes that aim to conserve nutrients by shutting down biosynthetic pathways, slowing cell cycle progression and facilitating autophagy. This research project focuses on elucidating the interaction between IDO activity and these pathways and its implications for the immune-editing process. The role of the mTOR kinase as a regulator of T cell fate following exposure to cognate antigen has recently become apparent. Experiments described herein confirm that in murine and human models of T cell activation exposure to tryptophan starvation results in significant mTORC1 inhibition and a modified phenotype with reduced Tbet expression, altered cytokine secretion profile, greatly impaired proliferative capability and expanded CD4⁺ FoxP3⁺ CD25^high subpopulations. Additional results confirmed that the action of IDO is sufficient to deplete tryptophan from the microenvironment to levels sufficient to depress the mTORC1 axis and trigger GCN2 activity even in tumour cell lines. Lower extracellular tryptophan levels were necessary to perturb these pathways In IDO expressing cell lines, suggesting that compensatory mechanisms allow continued proliferation of malignant cells in the face of conditions that severely impede an anti-cancer immune response. In conclusion, manipulation of the mTORC1 axis via IDO-induced tryptophan depletion is an important tumour immune-escape mechanism that can be a target for cancer immunotherapies.

En recherche et développement pharmaceutiques un candidat thérapeutique doit passer plusieurs barrières précliniques afin de déterminer certains paramètres pharmacocinétiques et pharmacodynamiques avant toute administration à l’homme. Malgré les efforts investis en R&D ces dernières années, l’industrie du médicament a souffert d’un ralentissement dans le développement de nouvelles molécules innovantes. Car avant sa mise sur le marché, tout candidat doit justifier de la sécurité liée à son utilisation mais aussi de sa balance bénéfice/ risque. Les modèles standards utilisés en développement en oncologie ne sont pas assez prédictifs et bien souvent non-adaptés, avec une niche tumorale inexistante. C’est pourquoi il est aujourd’hui essentiel de travailler sur des systèmes plus sensibles et mimant plus fidèlement la pathologie humaine afin d’obtenir des médicaments plus efficaces et moins toxiques pour une meilleure prise en charge. L’utilisation du modèle spontané de cancers comme approche prédictive en oncologie comparée a été rapportée par plusieurs équipes à travers le monde. En effet, les fortes similitudes au niveau histologique, moléculaire et clinique rapportées entre les tumeurs humaines et canines, font de ce modèle un allié essentiel pour l’optimisation du développement pharmaceutique chez l’homme ayant un bénéfice réciproque à la fois à la médecine humaine et vétérinaire.Chez l’homme, les mélanomes constituent l’une des formes les plus agressives des cancers cutanés. Ils représentent 4 à 11% des néoplasies cutanées et seulement 2% des cancers de l’épiderme. Ce sont des tumeurs très immunogènes et de très mauvais pronostic au stade métastatique contribuant au développement d’une réponse immunitaire anti-tumorale bien souvent responsable d’échappements et de résistances au traitement. Et malgré l’amélioration de 50 à 80% de la survie globale à 5 ans ces vingt dernières années, son incidence ne cesse d’augmenter et environ 7000 cas sont rapportés chaque année en France avec plus de 75% de décès liés à ces tumeurs.Bien que rares, ces tumeurs représentent 7% des cancers diagnostiqués chez le chien et environ 160000 cas sont recensés chaque année au niveau mondial. Sa localisation est buccale dans plus de 50% des cas. C’est aussi l’un des cancers les plus agressifs chez le chien, avec une survie globale post-opératoire de 173 jours associé à des métastases ganglionnaires et pulmonaires le plus souvent.Le but de ce travail a été la validation préclinique et clinique du modèle tumoral spontané canin dans la compréhension des mécanismes de cancérogenèse, de dormance tumorale et de développement thérapeutique. Validation préclinique, dans un premier temps via le développement et la caractérisation de modèles cellulaires et murins de mélanomes canins. Puis, dans un second temps, la validation clinique par le biais d’essais thérapeutiques chez le patient chien.A partir de prélèvements issus de deux profils cliniques distincts, deux lignées cellulaires de mélanome canin ont été développées et caractérisées sur le plan pharmacologique, génomique et fonctionnel. Une liste d’altérations génétiques a été établie sur ces deux profils en accord avec la littérature et présentant des points communs avec la pathologie humaine. De plus, il est bien établi que l’hétérogénéité tumorale est responsable de résistances au traitements conduisant aux rechutes, c’est pourquoi nous nous sommes par la suite intéressés à l’étude des populations souches tumorales au sein de notre modèle et à l’identification de marqueur permettant le ciblage de ces cellules pouvant contribuer ainsi à l’avancement de l’enrichissement de l’arsenal thérapeutique oncologique.En conclusion, le patient chien est doté d’un système immunitaire intact et d’une niche tumorale complète, constituant ainsi un système in-vivo très intéressant pour l’homme, pouvant contribuer à avancer la recherche et améliorer grandement nos connaissances sur cette pathologie. / Pharmaceutical development is a long and fastidious process. In fact, each drug candidate has to meet with a certain safety criteria list, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics profiles need to be determined prior to first use in humans and market approval.For years, the pharmaceutical industry has been suffering from a lack of innovative molecules and thus despite the efforts and cost increases in R&D programs. And most novel drug candidates entering clinical trials fail to reach approval, largely because preclinical models used in development do not provide adequate information about their efficacy or toxicity. That’s why; more predictive models of efficiency in oncology, shaping more precisely the human pathology are needed.The study of novel drug candidates in dogs with naturally occurring tumors allows drug assessment in neoplasms sharing many fundamental features with its human counterparts, and thus provides an opportunity to answer questions guiding the cancer drug development path in ways not possible in more conventional models. Moreover, the strong homologies in clinical presentation, morphology, and overall biology between dogs and their human counterparts make companion animals a good model to investigate tumor process from ætiology to tailored treatments.The aim of this project was to validate the canine spontaneous tumor model, by combining preclinical and clinical approaches, in the comprehension of the underlying mechanisms of cancer from carcinogenesis to drug resistance and tumor dormancy and also the discovery of new tools essential for the prediction, diagnosis clinical follow-up and treatment.Metastatic melanoma is one of the most aggressive forms of cutaneous tumors in humans. It constitutes 4 to 11% of skin malignancies and only 2% of the cancers of the epidermis. These highly immunogenic tumors hold a severe prognosis when metastasized and contribute to an immune anti-tumor reaction which could potentially lead to immune escape and resistance to most standard treatment protocols. And even if the 5-year survival has been improved to 50 – 80% over the past decades, its incidence is still in the rise with 7000 cases and 75% related deaths reported every year in France.In dogs, melanomas are one of the most frequently diagnosed malignancies of the oral cavity. These cancers account for 7% of all malignant tumors in dogs and 160000 reported every year worldwide. It also constitutes one of the most aggressive metastasizing tumors with a median post-surgery survival rate of 173 days.We developed and characterized immunucytochemically, pharmacologically and genomically two canine melanoma cell lines from naturally occurring dog tumors with distinct clinical profiles. A list of genetic alterations of these two profiles has also been established and is in accordance with the published literature, presenting same features as human tumors. And because tumor heterogeneity is responsible of resistance to treatment and relapse, we isolated and investigated cancer stem cell populations in our cell line models in order to identify the linked biomarkers which may constitute future potential targets for the expansion of the oncological therapeutic panel.In conclusion, due to its intact immune system, tumor niche and also because it shares the same environment as we do, the canine patient represent a promising opportunity in the advancement of cancer research, the acceleration of translation process and the setting up of more effective and less toxic molecules with dual benefits for the human and veterinary medicine toward better patient care.

Natural killer (NK) cells belong to the family of innate immune cells with the capacity to recognize and kill tumor cells. Different phenotypes and functional properties of NK cells have been described in tumor patients, which could be shaped by the tumor microenvironment. The discovery of HLA class I-specific inhibitory receptors controlling NK cell activity paved the way to the fundamental concept of modulating immune responses that are regulated by an array of inhibitory receptors, and emphasized the importance to explore the potential of NK cells in cancer therapy. Although a whole range of NK cell-based approaches are currently being developed, there are still major challenges that need to be overcome for improved efficacy of these therapies. These include escape of tumor cells from NK cell recognition due to their expression of inhibitory molecules, immune suppressive signals of NK cells, reduced NK cell infiltration of tumors, an immune suppressive micromilieu and limited in vivo persistence of NK cells. Therefore, this review provides an overview about the NK cell biology, alterations of NK cell activities, changes in tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment contributing to immune escape or immune surveillance by NK cells and their underlyingmolecular mechanisms as well as the current status and novel aspects of NK cell-based therapeutic strategies including their genetic engineering and their combination with conventional treatment options to overcome tumor-mediated evasion strategies and improve therapy efficacy.

No description available.

Die Studie auf die diese Arbeit aufbaut untersuchte die Immunogenität einer Wilms-Tumorgenprodukt-1-(WT1)-Peptid-Vakzinierung bei Patienten mit einer WT1-exprimierenden akuten myeloischen Leukämie (AML) ohne weitere Behandlungsoption. Trotz dem initalen immunologischen, molekularen und vorläufigen Nachweis einer möglichen klinischen Effektivität bei AML-Patienten, konnte nur in wenigen Fällen eine längerfristige Wirksamkeit dokumentiert werden. Es ist bekannt, dass eine Krebs-Immuntherapie durch Immunevasions-Mechanismen des Tumors beeinträchtigt werden kann. Da Analysen zu Mutationen oder Verlust des WT1-Epitops oder Epitop-flankierender Sequenzen keine Auffälligkeiten zeigten, konnte eine reduzierte Präsentation oder Erkennung des Epitops ausgeschlossen werden. Aus diesem Grunde sollte diese Arbeit weitere mögliche Immunevasions-Mechanismen identifizieren. Als Grundlage wurden Tumor-assoziierte Effekte, immunmodulatorische Faktoren und funktionelle Einschränkungen der Immunzellen in den Mittelpunkt der Untersuchungen gestellt. Die ermittelten Daten zeigen, dass in unserem spezifischen Therapieansatz, der wiederholten Vakzinierung von AML-Patienten mit einem HLA-A201-restringierten WT1126–134 -Epitop in Kombination mit GM-CSF und KLH, eine eingeschränkte T-Zell-Funktionalität einen wesentlichen Grund für die beobachtete verminderte Therapieeffizienz darstellt. Immunresistenzmechanismen leukämischer Blasten spielen hierbei keine übergeordnete Rolle, individuelle Effekte können aber nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Ebenso scheint es, dass auch die Präsenz von immunregulatorischen Zellen wie Tregs oder MDSCs nicht durch die Vakzinierung manipuliert wird und dass diese keinen generellen Einfluss auf die Therapieeffizienz ausüben. / The foregoing study investigated the immunogenicity of Wilms’ tumor gene product 1 (WT1)-peptide vaccination in WT1-expressing acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients without curative treatment option. Despite the first immunologic, molecular, and preliminary evidence of potential clinical efficacy in AML patients, only in a few cases long-lasting responses could be documented. It is known that enduring efficacy of cancer vaccines may be limited due to immune escape mechanisms. On this account, we chose to work on three front lines: Investigations of immune modulatory counter-attack-mechanisms of the tumor, functional deficiencies of the T cell compartment and the presence of immune regulatory cells. The generated data demonstrates that in our specific setting, in which AML patients received consecutive vaccinations with HLA-A201-restricted WT1126–134 epitope together with GM-CSF and KLH, impaired vaccine efficacy is mainly attributed to restricted T cell functionality. Immune resistance mechanism exerted by leukemic blasts do not generally influence clinical outcome in our setting, neither do inert immunoregulative mechanisms like Treg or MDSC, respectively.

No description available.

TRBP (TAR RNA Binding Protein), est un facteur activateur de la réplication du Virus de l'Immunodéficience Humaine de type 1 (VIH-1). Cette protéine cellulaire qui interagit avec les ARN double brins est connue pour son rôle crucial dans la voie des miRNA. Isolée pour sa capacité à interagir avec la séquence leader TAR présente à l'extrémité 5' de tous les ARN du VIH-1, TRBP favorise la réplication du VIH-1 au niveau post-transcriptionnel, en partie via l'inhibition de la PKR (Protéine Kinase ARN dépendante).Dans le but de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels TRBP facilite la réplication du VIH-1, le complexe protéique associé à TRBP a été purifié par immunoprécipitation par double affinité et identifié par spectrométrie de masse. En plus des facteurs déjà connus, un nouveau partenaire à activité ARN 2'-O-méthyltransférase (2'-OMTase) potentielle a été copurifié : la protéine FTSJ3. Chez les eucaryotes supérieurs, deux 2'-OMTases permettent la méthylation des ARNm cellulaires au niveau de la position ribose 2'-O- du premier (coiffe 1) et du deuxième nucléotide (coiffe 2). Cette coiffe 1/2 est une signature moléculaire permettant de discriminer les ARNm endogènes et exogènes. Dans la cellule, MDA5, un senseur cytoplasmique, reconnait les ARN exogènes non coiffés et déclenche la production d'interférons (IFNs) de type I pour établir un état antiviral. Pour échapper à la réponse immune innée, certains virus ont développé des mécanismes leur permettant de mimer une coiffe 1/2.Le VIH ne code pas pour une activité 2'-OMTase. Cependant FTSJ3, de par son interaction avec TRBP, se retrouve à proximité de l'extrémité 5' de l'ARN viral. Cette 2'-OMTase méthyle l'ARN TAR in vitro, qui, transfecté dans les cellules monocytaires humaines U937 n'induit plus la production d'IFNs de type I. A l'inverse, le virus VIH-1 produit en l'absence de FTSJ3 déclenche une induction de l'expression des IFNs de type I dépendante de MDA5 dans les cellules U937. L'expression de ce virus est atténuée suite à un défaut d'import nucléaire. Ainsi, ces travaux montrent que la protéine FTSJ3, recrutée au niveau de l'extrémité 5' de l'ARN du VIH-1 par TRBP, facilite la réplication du VIH-1 en assurant la synthèse d'une coiffe 1/2 qui permet au VIH-1 d'échapper à la reconnaissance par le senseur MDA5 et à l'induction des IFNs de type I. Cette étude met en évidence un nouveau mécanisme permettant au VIH-1 d'échapper à la détection par le système d'immunité innée cellulaire. / TRBP (TAR RNA Binding Protein) is a cellular RNA binding protein that facilitates the replication of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1). Isolated for its ability to bind HIV-1 TAR sequence present at the 5' end of all HIV-1 RNA, TRBP promotes HIV-1 replication at a post-transcriptional level by counteracting the antiviral activity of the protein kinase R (PKR).To gain more insight on how TRBP enhances HIV-1 replication, TRBP associated factors were purified using tandem immunoaffinity purification and identified by mass spectrometry. In addition to already known associated factors, a new protein with a putative RNA 2'-O-methyltransferase activity (2'OMTases) was copurified: FTSJ3. In higher eukaryotes, cellular mRNA are methylated on 2'-O ribose position on the first (Cap 1) and second nucleotide (Cap 2). This capping provides a molecular signature for the discrimination of endogenous versus exogenous mRNA. In the cell, MDA5, a cytoplasmic sensor, recognizes exogenous uncapped RNA and activate type I interferons (IFNs) production to establish an antiviral state. To evade innate immune response, some viruses have evolved mechanisms to mimics cap 1/2.HIV-1 does not encode a 2'O-MTase activity. However, owing to its interaction with TRBP, FTSJ3 is recruited at the 5' end of the viral genome and methylates TAR RNA in vitro. When capped by FTSJ3, TAR does not induce type I IFNs anymore when transfected in monocytic cell line U937. Conversely, HIV-1 viruses produced in FTSJ3 knock-down cells triggers type I IFNs expression through MDA5 sensing. This virus is attenuated, expressed in low amounts because of a block at the level of HIV-1 nuclear import. This study shows that FTSJ3 is recruited to HIV-1 5' end TAR sequence by TRBP and facilitates HIV-1 replication. HIV-1 RNA capping allows HIV-1 escape from MDA5 sensing and type I IFN induction. This study highlights a new way of HIV-1 escape from innate immune system.