The high pressures for coastal development, translated as prolific land cover transformation, coupled with the weaknesses of management to protect the environment has led to the gradual deterioration of environmental conditions in many coastal areas. Land use decisions in coastal areas are based on opportunities and constraints affected by both biophysical and socio-economic drivers, and hence present one of the main issues integrating the large debate on sustainable development in coastal zones (Lourenço and Machado, 2007: 1). The aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of the integration of spatial analysis and participatory approaches in SEA (particularly its ability to identify and predict ecological impacts) on the KwaZulu-Natal north coast of South Africa. The study adopted a conceptual framework based on landscape ecology, which was underpinned within the overarching political ecology framework. The former underscores the importance of integration, while the latter critiques the institutionalization of environmental concerns, which are characterized by inequalities in terms of social and political power and of how problems are defined, mediated and resolved. Hence this conceptual framework was considered appropriate to assess the strategic environmental issues pertaining to the coastal zone on the KwaZulu-Natal north coast. The researcher used participatory methods, primarily focus group discussions (which included venn diagramming, ranking exercises and participatory mapping) which were triangulated with both quantitative and qualitative methods as part of an integrated impact assessment. These relate to the use of semistructured questionnaires which were administered to a purposive sample of six key stakeholder interest groups within the study area. A spatial GIS time series analysis of land use and cover change was employed to determine baseline conditions, changes in the state of key ecosystems, key development drivers and emerging threats. Additionally, a policy and institutional review was undertaken. The analysis revealed that major natural land cover classes are in decline in the study area,within a time period of less than 10 years. The most sensitive ecosystems were found to be grasslands (-19.99%), coastal forest (-40%), wetlands (-37.49%) and secondary dunes (- 21.44%). Furthermore, agriculture and forestry are also indicating severe declines. The reasons attributed to this transformation of land cover are increasingly being linked with economic motives such as individual private land-owner dynamics, tourism growth and development in the area. Furthermore, the policy agendas are clearly economically motivated. These losses signify the cumulative decline in ecosystem goods and services, and could undermine pose risks to the society that relies on them either directly or indirectly. One of the main considerations in this research endeavor was to formulate a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Framework to inform future ICZM in the study area. SEA is planning with a long-term perspective, with a focus on a spatial rather than a project level, an element that is clearly lacking in the current development scenario of this coastline. It is critical that the SEA Framework advocated in this study include a range of variables that will permit short-term, medium-term and long-term monitoring and evaluation aimed at ensuring sustainable planning in the area. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

It is very unfortunate that despite laws that require adequate incorporation and integration of environmental concerns at all phases of the economic developmental projects in Zambia, the research findings of this dissertation show that they are not applied well. The dissertation consists of six chapters. The Introduction (Chapter One) gives a general overview of Zambia, its geographical position in relation to other African countries, its macro and micro economic policies and its economic needs for a sound transport infrastructure. It also gives a rationale for the Monze-Zimba road rehabilitation project. Chapter Two reviews and states existing policies, legal, strategies and the institutional framework for environmental management and protection in Zambia. It also states and identifies key institutions involved in administering the various environmental laws/regulations and briefly refers to applicable International Conventions. Chapter Three gives a descriptive overview of baseline information - particularly within the catchment area of the road - regarding the biophysical, socioeconomic and cultural environments. The baseline studies provide insights into the normal background environmental variability such that appropriate monitoring programmes can be designed. It is now abundantly and evidently clear that the despoiling of the environment has negative repercussions on the health and wellbeing, culture and economic opportunities of humans. Chapter Four, therefore, provides in-depth discussions of each of the major impacts identified, their nature and scale and appropriate practical measures for their mitigation. The measures are incorporated into an Environmental Management Plan. Chapter Five addresses the environmental monitoring of the impacts resulting from the activities of the road. The Conclusion (Chapter Six) gives substantiated opinions on the overall findings of the research. Recommendations are given to the government of Zambia and all stakeholders on the best ways that environmental issues should be handled at all levels of society. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of Durban-Westville, 2001.

An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) details mitigation measures and monitoring thereof as well management of the whole project implementation. As a management tool, the concept of an EMP was developed to ensure proper environmental management throughout the life-cycle of a development project. Despite EMPs having been in existence for quite some considerable period, environmental damage still persists. Furthermore, the environmental legislation of different countries and in particular South Africa does not use/make development of an EMP a specific requirement. This has implications on a number of issues such as EMP purpose, EMP implementation and the whole rationale behind an EMP. The motivation to investigate EMPs stemmed from a discussion I had with Dr Quinn, my supervisor, about my research proposal. He mentioned EMPs and encouraged me to investigate further. A review of literature about EMPs revealed the importance of EMPs in Integrated Environmental Management (IEM). A lot of questions arose as I was reading: • Are the provincial departments actually doing what is said in the literature? • Does the current use of EMPs achieve its purpose? • What is the whole rationale behind EMPs? • How are they implemented internationally and nationally? • What are the problems affecting EMP implementation? • How can the current situation be improved? As these questions came into my mind I thought the best way of discovering problems and solutions with respect to EMP implementation is to actually work with people whom I thought are knowledgeable about the subject. I then chose environmental authorities as the professionals who review EMPs and environmental consultants as the professionals who prepare EMPs as respondents. I hope some of the strategies suggested here will be implemented by the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs (DAEA) as the relevant authority in terms of section 22 of Environment Conservation Act (ECA) No. 73 of 1989. DAEA requests EMPs to be submitted as part of the conditions of approval when authorizing projects in terms of the ECA of 1989. If submitted, DAEA is also responsible for assessing and authorizing EMPs. I also hope that in the future there will be a study to investigate any improvements in the EMP implementation. This dissertation is presented in two parts, Component A and Component B. Component A includes the theoretical underpinnings for the results and Component B includes the analysis. Component A consists of the three chapters which are; the introduction, the literature review and the methods and conceptual framework used for the study. The referencing system used in this component complies with the Harvard System. Component B is written in preparation for submission to the Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal Journal but the format is in keeping with Component A. However, the referencing system used in this component complies with the journal requirements. The abstract has been placed at the beginning of component B as per the requirements of the journal. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004

With documented declines in the biophysical state of the planet, there is an increasing need to develop good environmental management tools to measure sustainability. Some of the traditional environmental management tools that are currently in use, such as Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs) do not adequately quantify sustainability for large events such as conferences, rock concerts and sporting events. In this research, Ecological Footprint Analysis (EFA) is considered as a tool for assessing the sustainability of a large event, viz. the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). The WSSD, a follow-up to the 1992 United Nations' Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), was held from 26 August to 4 September 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa. It is the largest event of its kind in the world, with 80 635 registered' (mostly international) delegates attending. EFA can be considered as a tool to measure sustainability that converts consumption and waste production into units of equivalent land area. Based on the reality of biophysical limits to growth, and presenting. data in an aggregated, quantifiable, yet easily comprehensible form, EFA is also a . useful tool for environmental policy and management. EFA has typically been applied at national and regional levels,as well. as in the assessment of technology. The application of the ecological footprint (EF) concept to a conference is the first of its kind undertaken. The case study shows conferences to be net importers of consumption items and thus dependent on a vast external environment. The EFA highlights those areas of consumption which constitute the largest part of the footprint and thus provides an opportunity for targeting those areas for proactive management. EFA for a conference clearly identifies that a reduced ecological footprint would mean a movement towards strong sustainability. Due to the vast resources consumed during a conference over a short period of time, initial observations and results show that conferences are ecologically unsustainable. In estimating the EF of the WSSD, data were obtained on the following items: carbon emissions from electricity usage for the WSSD by conference venues and accommodation; carbon emissions from air and road transport used by delegates; total water consumed during the WSSD; catchment size required to cater for the volumes of water consumed; carbon emissions from the waste generated; and carbon emissions from volumes of paper used during the WSSD. Data were sourced from various reports and service providers in the Johannesburg area. The total partial EF of the WSSD was the sum of the sub-component footprints of electricity, transport, water, waste and paper. The EF of the WSSD was 2 522.08 ha, comprising an electricity EF of 93.03 ha, transport EF of 1002.86 ha, water EF of 1 406.l4ha, waste EF of 0.45 ha and a paper EF of 19.60 ha. The footprint is 1.72% of the area of Johannesburg and 0.15% of Gauteng, but less than 0.01% the area of South Africa. The per capita EF of the WSSD was 0.03 ha, compared with South Africa's per capita EF of 4.02ha. A number of recommendations are made for the reduction of the EF of large events such as the WSSD, and hence reducing their contribution to environmental degradation. Recommendations include the wider use and application of the EF concept, at the institutional and govemmental level. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu- Natal, Durban, 2004.

Traditional approaches to policy analysis focus on the outcomes of environmental policy making and the relationship between the state and general public in the policy process. These approaches often overlook the policy process itself and the role of professionals, such as environmental consultants, as they are appointed by government to undertake work on behalf of the state. Environmental consultants are commissioned to work on projects, such as a Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), in South Africa because of the complexity of the policy process and lack of capacity in government, especially at the local level. Although the local level is seen as the platform for reconstruction and development, service delivery, and economic growth in South Africa, local government faces several challenges in terms of individual, institutional, and environmental capacity constraints. These challenges create a situation in which there is not sufficient capacity to develop effective environmental policies. In the context of these capacity constraints, the state relies on the skills and experience of environmental consultants to manage the environmental policy process. The aim of this research is to use a discourse analysis of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEAs to understand the role of environmental consultants in the policy processes which inform municipal environmental decision making. The focus of this research is to interpret the role of environmental consultants and to understand the environmental policy process within the context of the challenges facing local government. In order to achieve this aim, the research focuses on two dimensions of environmental policy making. The first dimension of policy making examines the discursive concepts actors use within the new discursive spaces emerging at the local government level. The second dimension of policy making analyses the discursive spaces in which the environmental policy process plays out. The empirical analysis of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEA policy processes are used to understand the environmental policy process and examine the role of consultants within emerging deliberative policy making processes. Evidence collected from the interpretation of the KwaDukuza and Rustenburg SEAs show that several discursive concepts emerged during the SEA policy processes. The concepts included an ‘ecological modernization’ discourse, story lines such as ‘balance brown and green issues’, and policy vocabularies such as an ‘environmental’ policy vocabulary. The concepts were found to be instrumental in the way actors define, interpret, and determine legitimate solutions to particular environmental problems. The three SEAs were also interpreted as a performance using four concepts; scripting, staging, setting, and performances. The evidence shows that these concepts can be used to understand the way actors position themselves and exert power in the policy process. The key finding of this research is that environmental consultants play an influential role in the policy process due to a lack of capacity in local government on complex projects, i.e. a SEA. The role of environmental consultants in these policy processes to manage the process and produce the policy document. The consultants are responsible integrating existing data, specialists’ reports and issues from the public participation process into the policy. Environmental consultants therefore strongly influence the discourses which frame the policies that ultimately inform and guide municipal environmental decision making. Although the evidence indicates that environmental consultants are appointed to undertake the majority of the work, the public officials play an important role in steering the project and ensuring that the policy includes government issues, aligns with existing policies and plans, and is what the municipality needs. The public officials are therefore not only influenced by the discourses of the environmental consultants, but the imperatives, such as economic growth, of the local, provincial, and national spheres of government. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2008.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal process, which provides valuable information concerning the potential environmental consequences or impacts of proposed development plans and actions. EIA, therefore plays an important role in aiding the decision making process and has been adopted worldwide as a predictive evaluation tool. Once the ElA has been conducted and the possible environmental impacts established, thorough recommendations for mitigation are usually made. However, there is often no ElA follow-up (monitoring, post-auditing, evaluation and communication) to ensure that the mitigation measures or the recommendations revealed by the EIA are put into practice. EIA follow-up is a vital procedure, which if effectively conducted, ensures that negative environmental impacts are kept to a minimum and facilitates sustainable development. The main objectives of this research were to assess the status of ElA follow-up in KwaZuluNatal (KZN), to establish possible reasons for shortcomings in the area of ElA follow-up in KZN and to develop and discuss a number of potential models of ElA follow-up, in order to make recommendations for future practice. This dissertation includes a theoretical review of the concepts of sustainable development and Integrated Environmental Management (IEM), together with a comprehensive assessment of the role of ElA follow-up. Fifteen environmental consultants from KZN, together with five consultants from the remainder of South Africa. and a number of other leading ElA practitioners were formally interviewed in order to ascertain a greater understanding of the current status of EIA follow-up in KZN. The results from these interviews revealed that ElA follow-up is a neglected component of ElA and IEM. There are, at present, a number of barriers or constraints to effective EIA follow-up practice in KZN. which were thoroughly examined in this dissertation. There is also an apparent confusion as to who is responsible for conducting and policing EIA follow-up in KZN. The KZN regulatory authority and leading conservation body were also interviewed in order to gauge their understanding of ElA follow-up and its status in KZN. From the research four potential models of EIA follow-up were presented, each highlighting a different way in which ElA follow-up may be conducted, especially in the different sectors of development. This dissertation recommends that although there is no one comprehensive model or way in which EIA follow-up should be undertaken, the partnership approach to EIA follow-up is the most effective way of ensuring follow-up and facilitating sustainable development in KZN. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

This dissertation focussed on the Mvoti River system in KwaZulu-Natal, an important resource for the numerous towns and villages along its course. Catchment activities are varied with agriculture being the predominant activity, and industrial activities common in the lower catchment. The Mvoti River is intensively utilized, especially in its lower reaches, to the extent that it is referred to as a ‘working river’. Modifications of the chemical and physical characteristics of the system, and consequently the biological characteristics, have led to degradation of the system such that the functioning of the lower river has deteriorated in comparison to that of its pre-disturbance condition. There are three main aspects of the Mvoti system around which this dissertation is based, namely, water quality, geochemistry, and conservation of the system. The results of the water quality survey of the estuary revealed that the system is presently experiencing water which is of an inferior quality. Compared against the South African water quality standards, a majority of the parameters exceed acceptable limits and are likely to present negative impacts on aquatic health and potentially human health. Comparison of current results, and water quality data for the system dating back to 1964, revealed that this degradation is not new to the system, and the Mvoti Estuary has in fact been experiencing continued deterioration over the years. The second part of this study investigated heavy metal presence in the sediments of the lower system and elemental presence and distribution in the surface sediments of the middle and lower River respectively. Results indicated that even though selected heavy metals are present, they are of concentrations lower than those of two other South African and two other international systems they were compared with. Enrichment and contamination assessments reveal that contaminants are in all probability present as a result of anthropogenic sources. However, distribution patterns which show highest levels just after effluent disposal sites suggest that the contamination is presumably human-induced and, the predominance of larger grained sediments that do not have high adsorption capacities, suggest that contaminants are readily remobilized into the water column. The final part of this research investigates other environmental problems, and causes, both natural and anthropogenic, experienced by the estuary system. These stresses include poor water quality, reduced water quantity, sedimentation, alien vegetation invasions and loss of biodiversity. Strategies to address these issues are proposed, with the intention of improving the condition of the estuary. This is an attempt at ecological restoration, to restore the estuary to a condition as close to as possible, to its pre-disturbance condition. These strategies include controlling abstraction and discharge, eradicating alien vegetation, controlling sandmining, and improving the overall quality of the system. Also proposed is an estuary management plan (EMP) for the Mvoti system, as there is currently no plan of such a nature in place. The EMP will aid restoration attempts, increase public awareness, and via post-project monitoring and evaluation ensure the success and sustainability of any future projects. Significantly, the adoption of an EMP will be a major step towards the rehabilitation, conservation and protection of this already degraded system. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2010.

Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA) is a more holistic assessment method that has emerged in the wake of experts recognising that the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has a tendency to be a site –project specific process, which frequently lacks the capacity to assess multiple development actions within a region (Canter, 1997). Although CEA is part of environmental policy for many countries, including South Africa, research has revealed that CEA is often poorly applied and in many cases ignored (DEA, 2004;Canter and Ross, 2008).One possible solution to enhancing CEA, within the study area, is for the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs KwaZulu Natal (DAEA), the agency ultimately responsible for assessing the effects of development, to adopt a participatory approach with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA). This study explores the potential for KwaZulu Natal DAEA, and the associated members responsible for assessing the effects of development, to enhance CEA by engaging with the multi stakeholder Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) processes, in the institutional engagement space provided by the Catchment Management Agency (CMA). The rational for the DAEA adopting such an approach to enhancing CEA, in addition to the linkages between land and water, the linkages between DAEA and DWA's responsibilities and the opportunity for engagement, is that the theses forums encompass all the major stakeholder groupings within the region. This in conjunction with the DAEA's participatory policy would provide the ideal opportunity for DAEA members, involved in CEA, to reap the benefits of participation in enhancing CEA. The aim of this research is to investigate the potential to enhance CEA through participation between the DAEA, the DWA and the multi-stakeholder IWRM processes in the CMA engagement space. In particular the research has the objectives of firstly gaining an understanding of the barriers to such an opportunity and secondly exploring what stakeholders perceived as potential initiatives that could be established to overcome the barriers. The methods of investigation were primarily semi structured interviews. These interviews were conducted with seven staff members from the local chapter of the DEA, The Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs KwaZulu Natal (DAEA). Due to the limited number of DAEA members within Pietermaritzburg region staff from Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, who deal with CEA under the auspices of the DAEA were also included. Further data sources included an extensive review of the relevant literature. Based on an analysis of the information gathered in the above mentioned manner, it was concluded that the current application of CEA is poor within the study area and participation between the DAEA and the DWA, although promoted in accordance with policy, was subject to barriers, many of them physiological, which severely hinder the process. It was also concluded that barriers to participation were preventing DAEA employees from recognising the full potential of the opportunity to engage with the established IWRM process in the CMA engagement space as a means to enhance CEA. Despite the many apparent barriers the majority of stakeholders did recognise the linkages between land and water, the linkages between the DAEA and the DWA and the value of what effective participation could mean for enhancing CEA. DAEA and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife employees did however not seem to acknowledge the true potential to enhance CEA by participating with the DWA as they were not taking advantage of the opportunity. Stakeholders did however suggested, that a dramatic change in attitude and mind set towards the way participation was approached was needed from all sectors and that the DAEA needs to acknowledge and take advantage of such opportunity to enhance CEA. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Sustainable development requires the integration of ecological and social concerns into economic activities. Recent trends in environmental impact assessment (EIA) suggest the eventual use of the EIA process to link socio-environmental attributes with economic decision-making thus allowing for the transition towards a sustainable future. / This thesis is an examination of the proposed Federal Environmental Impact Assessment Act of Canada and the extent to which its provisions seek to ensure a move towards sustainable development.

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