Prenatal stress (PNS) has been shown to affect a range of different modalities, like stress responsiveness and affective traits in both animals and humans. Previously, Dr Paula Brunton’s lab has used a novel model of ethologically relevant prenatal social stress and had shown increased stress responsiveness in both first generation (F1) PNS males and females and increased anxiety-like trait in males, together with corresponding changes in mRNA expression for corticotrophin releasing hormone (Crh) and its receptors. The first aim on this project was to further explore the phenotype of PNS offspring created using this model in social context. F1 PNS females, but not males, displayed an impairment in social memory in comparison to control females, which was supported by lower vasopressin receptor type 1a (Avpr1a) mRNA expression in the anterior part of lateral septum and bed nucleus of stria terminalis. Acute stress exposure immediately prior to the social memory test, impaired social memory in control males and females, but had no effect in PNS males and markedly improved performance in PNS females. This facilitated learning in the PNS females was supported by the finding of higher Avpr1a mRNA expression in both target regions in the brain. Finally, olfactory memory for social but not non-social odours was also impaired in PNS females, compared to control females, indicating that deficits in social memory in PNS females are specific to social odours and not in the detection and/or processing of all odours. It has been shown previously that phenotypes observed in PNS animals can also be seen following disrupted maternal care in the early post-partum period and that stress can affect maternal behaviour. To investigate this possibility in the current model a maternal behaviour observation protocol was developed. Dams were observed during the first postnatal week, three times/day in 90 min blocks. Stressed dams showed an increase in pup-directed behaviours, together with an increase in arched back nursing specifically, compared to control dams. Furthermore, studies have shown that maternal behaviour patterns can be transferred from mother to daughters, therefore this possibility was also investigated here. There were no differences in maternal behaviour between F1 control and F1 PNS dams. The maternal behaviour experiment for the F1 PNS dams created a unique opportunity to study their offspring (F2). F2 PNS rats had lower body weights than their control counterparts throughout their lifetimes, while not differing significantly in their calorie intake. Increased anxiety-like behaviour was also observed in both the F2 males and females (but only during proestrous and estrous stages of their cycle). These changes were supported in males by increased Crh and Crh receptor type 1 and decreased Crh receptor type 2 mRNA expression in discrete regions of the amygdala. Furthermore, F2 PNS females exhibited exaggerated, and males attenuated ACTH and corticosterone secretion in response to acute stress, compared with controls. The reduced stress response in F2 PNS males was supported by higher glucocorticoid receptor (GR, Nr3c1) mRNA expression in field CA1 of hippocampus. In F2 PNS females, increased stress responses were associated with increased Crh and Avp mRNA expression in the medial parvocellular division of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and lower basal Nr3c1 and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR, Nr3c2) mRNA expression in the hippocampus. As increased stress and anxiety-like responses have been linked to a depressive phenotype that possibility was also investigated. No changes were found in either sucrose preference or floating/swimming behaviour in the forced swim test between the F2 PNS and control rats, in either sex. Finally, the variation in individual stress responsiveness and anxiety-like trait and the relationship between these phenotypes was investigated in an outbred male Sprague Dawley population. It was found that three of the most commonly used anxiety tests: open field test, light dark box and elevated plus maze do not correlate as well with each other as could be expected. Secondly plasma corticosterone concentrations 30min after the onset of acute restraint stress were positively correlated with the amount of time the rats spent in the anxiogenic environments, showing perhaps counter-intuitively, that the higher the stress responses the less anxious the male rat is. The behavioural tests were also used as a selection procedure to compare gene expression by microarray in the amygdala of high and low anxious rats and hypothalamus of high and low stress-responsive rats. To summarise, stress during pregnancy has profound effects on the dams’ immediate maternal behaviour, as well as neuroendocrine and behavioural effects in both the F1 and F2 offspring. Furthermore, there is evidence of inter-individual variation in stress responsiveness and anxiety-like behaviour in an outbred rat population. This data could lead to further understanding of the origins of inter-individual variation and appreciation of the effect of stress throughout the life course.

Os estudos sobre anatomia e taxonomia de mastodontes são elaborados, principalmente, a partir de dados obtidos de elementos cranianos e dentários, por serem altamente especializados e consistirem em diagnoses para o grupo. Por este motivo, os ossos pós-cranianos acabam sendo negligenciados. O objetivo desta dissertação foi contribuir com novos dados acerca dos mastodontes sul-americanos (família Gomphoteriidae), por meio da descrição detalhada do esqueleto apendicular de exemplares provenientes de São Bento do Una, Pernambuco, bem como pela comparação com exemplares de diversas localidades (representados por 167 exemplares). Foram analisados 71 ossos do esqueleto apendicular atribuídos à Stegomastodon waringi (Holland, 1920), família Gomphotheriidae, e provenientes de São Bento do Una. O material fóssil compreende: úmero (3), ulna (4), rádio (6), escafoide (2), semilunar (2), piramidal (4), pisiforme (2), trapézio (3), trapezoide (3), capitato/magno (5), hamato/unciforme (6), metacarpal I (1), metacarpal II (2), metacarpal III (2), metacarpal IV (3), metacarpal V (3), fêmur (3), tíbia (6), fíbula (2), astrágulo (4), calcâneo (4) e navicular (1). A maioria das variações encontradas repete-se nas mensurações dos ossos de diversas localidades, no entanto, foram observadas variações pontuais, a exemplo dos exemplares de ulna provenientes de Tarija, Bolívia, que apresentam uma concavidade distal ao Processus coronoideus medialis, não observada nos demais exemplares. As tíbias provenientes de localidades mais ao sul são as únicas que possuem ambos os tubérculos intercondilares proeminentes. A presença de exemplares adultos de dimensões variadas em São Bento do Una, associada à observação de exemplares com tamanhos distintos, independente do local de coleta, indica que, assim como nos proboscídeos atuais, não é apropriado utilizar o tamanho como parâmetro para separação taxonômica no grupo. A partir da amostra estudada não foi possível diferenciar os táxons de mastodontes sul-americanos por meio do esqueleto apendicular, devido a seu grande polimorfismo / Most studies on the anatomy and taxonomy of the mastodonts have been undertaken using data from cranial and dental elements since these are highly specialized and are diagnostic for the group. As a consequence, post-cranial material has been neglected. The objective of this study was to provide new insights on the South American mastodonts (family Gomphoteriidae) by means of detailed descriptions of the apendicular skeleton of fossils from São Bento do Una, Pernambuco, Brazil, together with other material from diverse localities (represented by 167 samples). A total of 71 bones of the apendicular skeleton assigned to Stegomastodon waringi (Holland, 1920), Gomphotheriidae family, from São Bento do Una were analyzed. The fossil material comprised: humerus (3), ulna (4), radius (6), scaphoid (2), lunar (2), pyramidal (4), pisiform (2), trapezium (3), trapezoid (3), capitate/magnum (5), hamate/unciform (6), metacarpal I (1), metacarpal II (2), metacarpal III (2), metacarpal IV (3), metacarpal V (3), femur (3), tibia (6), fibula (2), astragulus (4), calcaneum (4) and navicular (1). Most of the variations encountered occurred repeatedly in the measurements of bones from diverse localities, although some unique examples were encountered, one such being a specimen of the ulna originating from Tarija, Bolivia, which presented a distal concavity in the Processus coronoideus medialis that was not encountered in any other sample. And the tibias from southern localities were the only ones to show prominent intercondilar tubercules. The presence of adult examples with variable dimensions at São Bento do Una, and also examples with variable sizes from other localities, showed that, as with the extant proboscideans, size is not an appropriate parameter to distinguish taxa in this group. On the basis of the samples studied it was not possible to distinguish the taxa of South American mastodonts by means of the apendicular skeleton because of the large polymorphisms encountered

Os estudos sobre anatomia e taxonomia de mastodontes são elaborados, principalmente, a partir de dados obtidos de elementos cranianos e dentários, por serem altamente especializados e consistirem em diagnoses para o grupo. Por este motivo, os ossos pós-cranianos acabam sendo negligenciados. O objetivo desta dissertação foi contribuir com novos dados acerca dos mastodontes sul-americanos (família Gomphoteriidae), por meio da descrição detalhada do esqueleto apendicular de exemplares provenientes de São Bento do Una, Pernambuco, bem como pela comparação com exemplares de diversas localidades (representados por 167 exemplares). Foram analisados 71 ossos do esqueleto apendicular atribuídos à Stegomastodon waringi (Holland, 1920), família Gomphotheriidae, e provenientes de São Bento do Una. O material fóssil compreende: úmero (3), ulna (4), rádio (6), escafoide (2), semilunar (2), piramidal (4), pisiforme (2), trapézio (3), trapezoide (3), capitato/magno (5), hamato/unciforme (6), metacarpal I (1), metacarpal II (2), metacarpal III (2), metacarpal IV (3), metacarpal V (3), fêmur (3), tíbia (6), fíbula (2), astrágulo (4), calcâneo (4) e navicular (1). A maioria das variações encontradas repete-se nas mensurações dos ossos de diversas localidades, no entanto, foram observadas variações pontuais, a exemplo dos exemplares de ulna provenientes de Tarija, Bolívia, que apresentam uma concavidade distal ao Processus coronoideus medialis, não observada nos demais exemplares. As tíbias provenientes de localidades mais ao sul são as únicas que possuem ambos os tubérculos intercondilares proeminentes. A presença de exemplares adultos de dimensões variadas em São Bento do Una, associada à observação de exemplares com tamanhos distintos, independente do local de coleta, indica que, assim como nos proboscídeos atuais, não é apropriado utilizar o tamanho como parâmetro para separação taxonômica no grupo. A partir da amostra estudada não foi possível diferenciar os táxons de mastodontes sul-americanos por meio do esqueleto apendicular, devido a seu grande polimorfismo / Most studies on the anatomy and taxonomy of the mastodonts have been undertaken using data from cranial and dental elements since these are highly specialized and are diagnostic for the group. As a consequence, post-cranial material has been neglected. The objective of this study was to provide new insights on the South American mastodonts (family Gomphoteriidae) by means of detailed descriptions of the apendicular skeleton of fossils from São Bento do Una, Pernambuco, Brazil, together with other material from diverse localities (represented by 167 samples). A total of 71 bones of the apendicular skeleton assigned to Stegomastodon waringi (Holland, 1920), Gomphotheriidae family, from São Bento do Una were analyzed. The fossil material comprised: humerus (3), ulna (4), radius (6), scaphoid (2), lunar (2), pyramidal (4), pisiform (2), trapezium (3), trapezoid (3), capitate/magnum (5), hamate/unciform (6), metacarpal I (1), metacarpal II (2), metacarpal III (2), metacarpal IV (3), metacarpal V (3), femur (3), tibia (6), fibula (2), astragulus (4), calcaneum (4) and navicular (1). Most of the variations encountered occurred repeatedly in the measurements of bones from diverse localities, although some unique examples were encountered, one such being a specimen of the ulna originating from Tarija, Bolivia, which presented a distal concavity in the Processus coronoideus medialis that was not encountered in any other sample. And the tibias from southern localities were the only ones to show prominent intercondilar tubercules. The presence of adult examples with variable dimensions at São Bento do Una, and also examples with variable sizes from other localities, showed that, as with the extant proboscideans, size is not an appropriate parameter to distinguish taxa in this group. On the basis of the samples studied it was not possible to distinguish the taxa of South American mastodonts by means of the apendicular skeleton because of the large polymorphisms encountered

Individual variation in cooperation is a striking yet poorly understood feature of many animal societies, particularly in cooperative breeders where individuals assist in the care of young that are not their own. While previous research on these systems has emphasised the plasticity of helping and how it varies with current environmental and social conditions, in this dissertation I examine how individual variation is constrained and influenced by trade-offs with other behaviours and experiences in early life. I demonstrate that variation in cooperative pup care (babysitting and provisioning) is consistent within individuals over time (Chapter 3). Provisioning is more consistent than babysitting, although the two behaviours are highly correlated within individuals. I then focus on the variation in helping that remains once current factors, such as condition, group size and food availability, are taken into account. In Chapter 4, I explore the possibility that variation in helping can be explained by personality, or consistency in behavioural traits such as exploration or risk-taking. I find little evidence for consistent individual differences in field measures of personality traits, however, with such behaviours instead being group-specific. Early social experiences are known to have important and lasting effects on later fitness and behaviour: in Chapter 5, I demonstrate that, in female meerkats only, growing up in a group with more helpers is correlated with reduced cooperation later in life. This result suggests the importance of future fitness in influencing current cooperative behaviour, as females raised in larger groups are more likely to attain dominance. Finally, I examine the extent to which vocal communication between carers and young is influenced by variation in contributions to cooperation. Females are more sensitive to increased begging rate (Chapter 6), which reflects general sex differences in cooperative behaviour. Carers modify their vocalizations but not their foraging behaviour in the presence of pups, and the way in which they vocalize during provisioning events suggests these calls serve to increase efficiency of prey transfer (Chapter 7).

Habitat structure modifies the strength of predator-prey interactions, but it remains unclear how to describe the three-dimensional spatial arrangement of structural components in a way that consistently predicts outcomes. Interstitial space may provide a useful target for measurement, but most studies use only two-dimensional methods to describe 3D space, limiting their predictive power. Using a novel technology to produce identical components, this study tests whether the 3D interstitial space of oyster shell mimics modifies the ability of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) to capture their mud crab prey (Eurypanopeous depressus) in mesocosms and a variety of reef-associated predators to capture tethered mud crabs in the field. To accomplish this, individual interstices were manipulated by changing either the orientation or internal shape of 3D printed shell mimics, representing possible ways natural oyster shells differ spatially on a reef. In mesocosms, 3D interstitial space strongly affected prey survivorship in both spatial arrangements, but striking variation in the ability of individual blue crabs to consume their prey in the Shape 1 structures was notable. Field tethering experiments mostly corroborated mesocosm findings, except in the shell shape treatment. These unexpected results were likely an artifact of differences in predation between field experiments and highlight the specificity of predator-prey interactions in structured habitats. Together, these results demonstrate that the 3D interstitial space created from the spatial arrangement of structural components can mediate predator foraging success independent of the widely studied density attribute, but these outcomes are further dependent on both predator and prey identity as well as individual variation. This study also identifies a potential target for quantifying the spatial arrangement of structural components and proposes that such a measure should be three-dimensional, capture both the size and shape of an interstice, and scaled to the specific predator-prey interaction in question.

A majority of Americans regularly consume alcohol, but the risk factors leading to excessive drinking and alcohol abuse are unevenly distributed throughout the population. Genetic differences can account for only 40-60% of this variability. While variations in ethanol preference drinking in rodent models have been reported, the neurobiological factors underlying these behaviors are still not completely understood. Thus, these studies were designed to determine behavioral and molecular factors associated with the initiation of ethanol drinking preference in an inbred mouse model. We harnessed the power of inter-individual variation of ethanol drinking within an inbred mouse strain to essentially eliminate genetic variability and focus on environmental factors. Our studies have characterized robust, persistent individual variability in ethanol intake in C57 mice using a two-bottle choice paradigm. Ethanol intake differences were not due to litter effects or differences in taste preference. Social rank nor basal anxiety phenotypes could account for ethanol preference. Based on the shared co-morbidity of anxiety and alcoholism, and that alcoholics report anxiety and stress reduction as major motivational factors for drinking, we used an ethologically-relevant social defeat model to investigate stress-influences on ethanol drinking. We found that social defeat has bidirectional effects on ethanol drinking. Mice with a low predilection for ethanol tend to increase drinking following social stress while high preference mice decrease drinking. Even though social defeat produced a measurable physiological response in mice, defeat stress did not alter anxiety measures in the light-dark box. Thus, the current findings did not fully support the tension-reduction hypothesis of alcoholism. In order to determine the molecular factors underlying these differences in ethanol preference drinking, we employed genome-wide expression profiling to identify gene networks altered in ethanol-preferring and ethanol-avoiding mice. Genes involved in synaptic vesicle release, glutamate and BDNF signaling were differentially altered in drinking mice. Following stress-influenced ethanol drinking, expression profiling identified transcripts involved in dopamine signaling, the extra-hypothalamic stress response and alterations in steroid and glucocorticoid synthesis. Most importantly, these expression studies and behavioral analysis following histone deacetylase inhibition may be the first to implicate epigenetic factors involving chromatin acetylation and/or methylation as contributing to environmental modulation of ethanol intake.

The biological diversity on planet Earth is astounding. Understanding the origins of this diversity, and how it is maintained, are the twin goals of ecology and evolutionary biology. An early and oft-repeated insight in this investigation is that that similar organisms cannot coexist indefinitely. Theory predicts that individuals and species will compete for limited resources and whichever has even a slight advantage will drive all others extinct in a process known as ‘competitive exclusion’. By diversifying, species avoid competition, thereby ‘stabilizing’ their coexistence. Yet natural systems often display levels of diversity that are surprisingly high, given this theory and investigations of how the similarity of coexisting species is maintained have received much less attention. Using a combination of field studies and experiments I demonstrate that highly similar species of freshwater amphipods may compete for resources without resulting in competitive exclusion. These findings suggest that there exist a range of interactions among Hyalella amphipods, ranging from strong stabilizing effects due to ecological trade-offs, to weakly stabilizing effects, to a total lack of stabilizing effects among various pairs of species in this system. These findings demonstrate how the relative strength of stabilizing forces may vary among coexisting species. Although much effort has been dedicated to enumerating and classifying the ways in which ecological and evolutionary forces promote diversity among species, there has been far less attention paid to mechanisms such as convergent evolution, habitat filtering, competition for non-substitutable resources, and non-ecological speciation, among others. I surveyed current theory that may explain the high levels of similarity among species often found in natural systems. I describe how several ecological and evolutionary mechanisms may operate to promote the coexistence of similar species and present results from new theoretical combinations of mechanisms to demonstrate how they may further act in concert with one another. / text

Background: OCD is a debilitating mental health condition. Poor access to evidence-based psychological treatment has motivated the implementation of low intensity interventions in UK mental health services for OCD. Around one half of those accessing care remain clinically unwell. Service users, providers, and treatment decision-makers could benefit from understanding users' views of low intensity interventions and knowing which users are more likely to benefit from diverse low intensity approaches in order to match individuals with treatments of known efficacy. Aim and objectives: The primary aim of this research was to determine user characteristics associated with engagement and outcome in low intensity interventions for OCD. The objectives of the study were: 1) to review the published literature on predictors of psychological therapy outcome in OCD, 2) to explore individual variation in intervention acceptability, uptake, and engagement, and 3) to identify user characteristics, which moderate intervention engagement and outcome. Methods: This mixed methods thesis was conducted in three parts. Firstly, a systematic review of published trial data was conducted to identify predictors of therapy outcome. Secondly, primary data were collected as part of a large effectiveness trial: 1) qualitative interviews with 36 trial participants, randomised to one of two low intensity interventions (guided self-help; cCBT); and 2) quantitative trial assessments conducted at baseline and at 3-months follow-up. Data from the systematic review and the qualitative study were used to identify possible moderators of outcome. Confirmatory analyses were then conducted on these variables, using data from the quantitative assessments. Results: Objective 1: The systematic review identified 43 studies, examining predictors of outcome. Robust effects were rare and the applied utility of these findings is limited by methodological weaknesses. Objective 2: Six themes were identified from the qualitative study, three relate to the general acceptability of low intensity interventions: 1) Predisposing concepts of high quality psychological therapies, 2) Engaging with low intensity interventions, and 3) The perceived value of therapist support. Three are specific to individuals with OCD: 4) Positive aspects of OCD, 5) Recognition and accommodation of OCD users' needs, and 6) OCD disclosure. Objective 3: User attachment style, expressed emotion, OCD symptom subtype, and prior help seeking for OCD were examined in confirmatory interaction tests. Symmetry/order/exactness symptoms were associated with a greater likelihood of engagement in guided self-help than cCBT. Contamination/washing symptoms were associated with improved outcome in guided self-help over cCBT. Conclusions: This study has made an original contribution through using a mixed methods design to identify individual differences in response to low intensity interventions in OCD. There is significant individual variation in the acceptability of, and engagement with, low-intensity interventions for OCD, linked to the mode and intensity of therapist support preferable to the individual user. However, few moderators could be identified. Future research should focus on maximising the reliability of stratified medicine research to allow related findings to inform clinical decision-making.

Introdução: O diagnóstico das disfunções da tuba auditiva é essencial para o melhor entendimento da patogênese da otite média crônica. Estão descritos, na literatura, uma série de testes que avaliam a função tubária, entretanto, entre eles, há uma diversidade metodológica que varia desde os protocolos de aplicação até a padronização dos testes e seus resultados. Objetivo: Avaliar a variação da pressão na orelha média em pacientes com retração da membrana timpânica e em indivíduos normais, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária, bem como avaliar a variação intraindividual desses testes. Este estudo também tem por objetivo avaliar o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica na orelha contralateral, durante a realização dos testes. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal e contemporâneo, onde o fator em estudo foi a variação de pressão na orelha média, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária (Manobra de Valsalva, Sniff Test, Manobra de Toynbee) em indivíduos normais e em pacientes com retrações timpânicas leves e moderadas/severas. Foram incluídos 38 pacientes, totalizando 76 orelhas. Os pacientes foram submetidos, em dois momentos diferentes, aos testes de função tubária para determinar a medida da pressão após cada manobra. Durante a realização dos testes, videotoscopia era realizada concomitantemente na outra orelha, a fim de se observar a movimentação da membrana timpânica. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio do programa SPSS versão 18.0, em que foram considerados como estatisticamente significativos os valores de p< 0,05. Resultados: A média ± desvio-padrão da idade foi de 11 ± 2,72 anos; 55,3% dos pacientes foram do sexo masculino e 44,7% do sexo feminino. A prevalência de curva A foi maior nos grupos de orelhas normais e retrações leves, enquanto que de curva C foi maior no grupo de retrações moderadas/severas. Observamos aumento das pressões na orelha média durante a realização da Manobra de Valsalva no primeiro momento de avaliação nos três grupos de orelhas (p= 0,012). A variação da pressão não foi significativa nem para o Sniff Test, nem para o Toynbee nos dois momentos de avaliação (p≥0,05). A concordância das medidas nos dois diferentes momentos foi de fraca a moderada para os testes nos três grupos de orelhas, e as variâncias da discrepância entre as medidas foram maiores nas orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. Apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística, o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. Conclusão: Na população estudada, a média das pressões na cavidade timpânica apresentou uma variação significativa somente durante a Manobra de Valsalva, no primeiro momento de avaliação, nos três grupos de orelhas. As orelhas normais e as com retração leve se comportaram de forma semelhante entre si em todos os testes. As manobras utilizadas apresentaram uma variação intraindividual de fraca a moderada, sendo que maior variação ocorreu em orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. O número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. / Introduction: The diagnosis of Eustachian tube dysfunctions is essential for better understanding the pathogenesis of chronic otitis media. The literature describes a series of tests to assess tube function; however, there is methodological diversity between them, which varies from application protocols to standardization of tests and their results. Objective: To evaluate the variation in middle ear pressure in patients with tympanic membrane retraction and in normal subjects during tube function tests, as well as to evaluate intra-individual variation between these tests. This study also aimed to evaluate the number of tympanic membrane movements of the contralateral ear during the tests. Methods: An observational contemporary cross-sectional study was conducted, in which the factor under study was the variation in middle ear pressure during tube function tests (Valsalva maneuver, Sniff Test, Toynbee maneuver) in normal subjects and in patients with mild and moderate/severe tympanic retraction. A total of 38 patients (76 ears) were included in the study. Patients underwent tube function tests at two different time points, in order to determine the measure of pressure after each maneuver. During the tests, videotoscopy was performed concomitantly in the contralateral ear, in order to observe tympanic membrane movement. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 18.0, considering p values < 0.05 as statistically significant. Results: Mean ± standard deviation for age was 11 ± 2.72 years; 55.3% of patients were male and 44.7% female. The prevalence of type A tympanogram was higher in the groups with normal ears and mild retraction, while type C tympanogram was higher in the group with moderate/severe retraction. An increase in middle ear pressure was observed during Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears (p= 0.012). The variation in pressure was not significant either for the Sniff Test or for Toynbee maneuver at the two time points evaluated (p≥0.05). The agreement of the measures at the two different time points was from weak to moderate for the tests in the tree groups of ears, and the variations in discrepancy between measures were higher in ears with moderate/severe retraction. Although it had not reached statistical significance, the number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the tree groups of ears. Conclusion: In this study population, mean pressure in the middle ear showed a significant variation only during the Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears. Normal ears and those with mild retraction behaved similarly in all tests. The maneuvers used showed intra-individual variation from weak to moderate, with the higher variation occurring in ears with moderate/severe retraction. The number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the three groups of ears.

Introdução: O diagnóstico das disfunções da tuba auditiva é essencial para o melhor entendimento da patogênese da otite média crônica. Estão descritos, na literatura, uma série de testes que avaliam a função tubária, entretanto, entre eles, há uma diversidade metodológica que varia desde os protocolos de aplicação até a padronização dos testes e seus resultados. Objetivo: Avaliar a variação da pressão na orelha média em pacientes com retração da membrana timpânica e em indivíduos normais, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária, bem como avaliar a variação intraindividual desses testes. Este estudo também tem por objetivo avaliar o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica na orelha contralateral, durante a realização dos testes. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal e contemporâneo, onde o fator em estudo foi a variação de pressão na orelha média, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária (Manobra de Valsalva, Sniff Test, Manobra de Toynbee) em indivíduos normais e em pacientes com retrações timpânicas leves e moderadas/severas. Foram incluídos 38 pacientes, totalizando 76 orelhas. Os pacientes foram submetidos, em dois momentos diferentes, aos testes de função tubária para determinar a medida da pressão após cada manobra. Durante a realização dos testes, videotoscopia era realizada concomitantemente na outra orelha, a fim de se observar a movimentação da membrana timpânica. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio do programa SPSS versão 18.0, em que foram considerados como estatisticamente significativos os valores de p< 0,05. Resultados: A média ± desvio-padrão da idade foi de 11 ± 2,72 anos; 55,3% dos pacientes foram do sexo masculino e 44,7% do sexo feminino. A prevalência de curva A foi maior nos grupos de orelhas normais e retrações leves, enquanto que de curva C foi maior no grupo de retrações moderadas/severas. Observamos aumento das pressões na orelha média durante a realização da Manobra de Valsalva no primeiro momento de avaliação nos três grupos de orelhas (p= 0,012). A variação da pressão não foi significativa nem para o Sniff Test, nem para o Toynbee nos dois momentos de avaliação (p≥0,05). A concordância das medidas nos dois diferentes momentos foi de fraca a moderada para os testes nos três grupos de orelhas, e as variâncias da discrepância entre as medidas foram maiores nas orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. Apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística, o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. Conclusão: Na população estudada, a média das pressões na cavidade timpânica apresentou uma variação significativa somente durante a Manobra de Valsalva, no primeiro momento de avaliação, nos três grupos de orelhas. As orelhas normais e as com retração leve se comportaram de forma semelhante entre si em todos os testes. As manobras utilizadas apresentaram uma variação intraindividual de fraca a moderada, sendo que maior variação ocorreu em orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. O número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. / Introduction: The diagnosis of Eustachian tube dysfunctions is essential for better understanding the pathogenesis of chronic otitis media. The literature describes a series of tests to assess tube function; however, there is methodological diversity between them, which varies from application protocols to standardization of tests and their results. Objective: To evaluate the variation in middle ear pressure in patients with tympanic membrane retraction and in normal subjects during tube function tests, as well as to evaluate intra-individual variation between these tests. This study also aimed to evaluate the number of tympanic membrane movements of the contralateral ear during the tests. Methods: An observational contemporary cross-sectional study was conducted, in which the factor under study was the variation in middle ear pressure during tube function tests (Valsalva maneuver, Sniff Test, Toynbee maneuver) in normal subjects and in patients with mild and moderate/severe tympanic retraction. A total of 38 patients (76 ears) were included in the study. Patients underwent tube function tests at two different time points, in order to determine the measure of pressure after each maneuver. During the tests, videotoscopy was performed concomitantly in the contralateral ear, in order to observe tympanic membrane movement. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 18.0, considering p values < 0.05 as statistically significant. Results: Mean ± standard deviation for age was 11 ± 2.72 years; 55.3% of patients were male and 44.7% female. The prevalence of type A tympanogram was higher in the groups with normal ears and mild retraction, while type C tympanogram was higher in the group with moderate/severe retraction. An increase in middle ear pressure was observed during Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears (p= 0.012). The variation in pressure was not significant either for the Sniff Test or for Toynbee maneuver at the two time points evaluated (p≥0.05). The agreement of the measures at the two different time points was from weak to moderate for the tests in the tree groups of ears, and the variations in discrepancy between measures were higher in ears with moderate/severe retraction. Although it had not reached statistical significance, the number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the tree groups of ears. Conclusion: In this study population, mean pressure in the middle ear showed a significant variation only during the Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears. Normal ears and those with mild retraction behaved similarly in all tests. The maneuvers used showed intra-individual variation from weak to moderate, with the higher variation occurring in ears with moderate/severe retraction. The number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the three groups of ears.