The Ebenaceae is a family of woody, mostly tropical plants consisting of about 500 species, some of which produce the ebony of commerce, and a few others produce the edible fruits known as persimmons. About 300 species occur in the Indo-Pacific area, with the greatest concentration, of 150 - 200 species, within the tropical rain forest region known as Malesia, which includes the political units Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. This study is based primarily on herbarium material of Malesian species but whenever it has been necessary to ignore the Malesian boundary in the interests of acquiring a better understanding of the plants, I have done so. Hence all species in the Inde-Pacific area have been examined, at least casually, but some ia considerable detail. A few critical examples from Africa have also been included. The last comprehensive monograph on the family was written almost a century ago, by Hiern (1873), when only 262 species were recognised. Hiern's monograph is now completely out of date at species, sectional and generic levels. For Malesia, the standard regional monograph was completed by Bakhuisen in 1941. This work too, is out of date because much more new material has been collected, especially from areas formerly difficult to reach and consequently under-explored. The present study is divided into four parts. The first part consists of a series of investigations into form and structure within the family, covering carpel and seed morphology, seedling behaviour, pollen morphology, wood anatomy, various features of the epidermis especially trichomes and stomata, and karyotype. It was found that tho Ebenaceous gynoecium is composed of 2-8 bi-ovulate carpels "fused" to form a multilocular ovary. However, false septa are developed in all except 11 species. These false septa have usually not been recognised for what they are, and for this reason, descriptions of carpol morphology and the use of carpel characters in previous taxonomic treatments of the family have betrayed a considerable amount of confusion which the present research has cleared up. Pollen morphology and woody anatomy is remarkably constant throughout the family. Chromosome number is very stable. A single euploid series 2n m 30, 60, 90 applies right through the family. Epidermal structures are, on the other hand, more variable than might have been expected, e.g. there are simple, branched, tufted, glandular and peltate trichomes; stomata may bo anomocytic or have subsidary cells of various forms. Seedling behaviour during germination is variable, some species being neither hypogeal nor epigeal and have to be described by considering the behaviour of the hypecotyl and tho cotylodens separately. The second part is an investigation into the limits of the family. This consists of a series of critical comparisons between Kbenaseae and the families Sapetaceae, Sarcospermataceae, Styracaceae, Symplocaseae and Liasoearpaceae. A large number of characters were examined, in the process of which several important points emerged. Carpel structure has been consistantly misinterpreted especially in the system of Engler (1964). Contrary to the claim that the Sapotaceous ovary is completely partitioned into lecules, by which it differs from the partially "open" condition in Kbenaseae, Styracaceae and Symplocaseae it was found that the lecules in every Sapetaceous ovary examined, are in connection with each other by means of a compitum of varying size. In fact, all the six families involved in this survey are eu-syncarpous (Carr & Carr 1961). Trichome characters are unreliable as markers for the various families. Popular association of branched hairs with Sapetaceae and simple hairs with Ebenaceae and Symplocaceae turn out to be oversimplifications of the truth. In previously published definitions of these six families, the boundaries between them appear to be funny. It was found that much fussiness merely reflects bad choice of characters and misunderstanding of certain structures and of their extent of variation. The families are in fact either very sharply defined from each other or not clearly definable at all. Sarcospermataceae ia a bad family, quite indistinct from Sapetaceae. All the other families are sharply defined from each other by several to many characters, and there are no problems of intermediate taxa. Lissocarpaceae, sometimes thought to be intermediate between Ebenaceae and Styracaceae, is a distinct family but probably tho meet closely related to Ebenaceae of all the families considered. Sapetaceae usually thought of as the closest family to Ebenaceae is in fact most different. The naturalness of the Order Ebenales is put in doubt. In the third part, Bakhuisen's classification of Malesian Ebenaceae (actually Dioapyres since this is the only genus in Malesia), ie put to the test using a taximetrlc procedure of character analysis. The results support the maintainance of Hierniodendron and Brachycylix as infra-generic taxa worthy of recognition. Support for the other sub-genera and sections was feeble to nil. The genus Dioapyres is probably best considered to consist of one very large variable section (Sect. Dioapyres) and a small number of little ones. Problems of species delimitation do not loom very large in this study, but in the fourth part, three species-complexes were analysed for morphological variation over their entire range. In one of these analyses, involving Dioapyres sylvatica, D. ehreticides, D.hermaphredies and D.fasciculesa, an interesting pattern of allopatry emerged, which suggested that some of these taxa could be regarded as geographical subspecies. The other two analyses were carried out on D.kaki, D.lotus and their relatives. These species produce edible persimmons. Problems of their origin and spread are consequently of wider than taxonoaic interest, but the taxonomic approach adopted here serves to sharply outline various hypothoses that ethers may be able to test by cytotaxonomic and other means. It is suggested that D.kaki originated from D.roxburghii, which is now found wild in the forests of Assan, Burma, Thailand, Yunnan and Indo China. The controversial problem of the role of man in the distribution of D.lotus is reviewed and summarised.

[Abstract]: Australia is one of the driest continents in the world, and over the past decades, severe drought has plagued most of the country. Water security is an important national issue. The ultimate water supply, rainfall, however, is one of the most variable ones in theworld and is complicated by the fact that it is affected by several remote oceanatmospheric teleconnection systems simultaneously, including the El Niño-SouthernOscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and Southern Hemisphere oceanic and atmospheric variability. These three systems sometimes conspire to produce a severe impact, whereas sometimes they offset each other to produce a mild influence. The recent severe watershortage has generated a surge of investments with strong regional applications. The present study focuses on areas and issues outside the scope of these regional studies,aiming to provide an Australia-wide assessment of future Australian rainfall under climate change. Firstly, we unravel a process of the Indo-Pacific oceanic teleconnection and examine its role in influencing variability of the Indian Ocean, and hence Australianrainfall variations. An examination of their contribution to the warming structure of the Indian Ocean is carried out. Secondly, we explore dynamics of North West Australianrainfall variability and mechanisms of a rainfall increase over the past decades, and benchmark climate models in terms of their ability to reproduce the observed variability and trends, focusing on the role of increasing northern hemispheric aerosols in the rainfallincrease. Thirdly, we provide a dynamical explanation to the common future of a fast Tasman Sea warming rate under climate change, and identify the impacts of suchwarming on Australian rainfall. Finally, we examine the relative importance of the three systems, in addition to Tasman Sea warming, in driving rainfall changes undergreenhouse conditions. This project contributes to no less than six peer-reviewed journal publications.

The origin of marine biodiversity in the Indo-Pacific is poorly known. Faunal turnover in scleractinian reef corals has been hypothesised over the Miocene-Pliocene boundary (~5 Ma), in the Malay Archipelago. However, there is little information available on origination and extinction events in reef corals during the same period for the broader Indo-Pacific region. This is important because many species probably had a wider distribution than previously thought, and many more genera than has previously been estimated were probably present in the Indo-Pacific during the Neogene. Here I begin to fill the gap in our knowledge by reporting on the taxonomic composition and diversity of Neogene reef coral communities sampled from Indonesia (Salayar), Papua New Guinea (New Britain), and Fiji (Vanua Balavu). Sampling locations were chosen on their reported age, fossil content and preservation quality. Ages were refined using foraminiferal assemblages and Strontium 87/86 isotope ages of samples collected at the sampling locations. This dual approach confirms a middle Miocene to early Pleistocene age range for the collection. I described 155 species of reef forming corals collected across an Indo-Pacific longitudinal gradient. Twenty-two constitute new, extinct species from the genera Alveopora, Astreopora, Caulastrea, Cyphastrea, Echinopora, Euphyllia, Galaxea, Leptoria, Leptoseris, Madracis, Montipora, Platygyra, Symphyllia and Turbinaria. A further 42 taxa could not be assigned to species level due to poor preservation, but may well be additional new, extinct species. I uncovered a general pattern of coral turnover across the Indo-Pacific by investigating the degree to which coral communities (using both presence/absence and relative abundance of both coral species and genera) varied with water depth, time and geographical distribution. Coral communities were found to vary with global sea level and time. Thus global changes in sea level through time potentially drove extinction and origination in Indo-Pacific Neogene corals. Inverse Lyellian analysis indicates that of species present in the Miocene in New Britain, a mean of 41.8% are now extinct, possibly resulting from restricted flow of oceanic currents in that region. Indonesia (mean = 9.4%); and Fiji (mean = 6.6%) both had significantly lower proportions of extinct species. However, there is a decline in the number of extinct species found at any location from the middle Miocene (mean = 23.2%) to the early Pleistocene (mean = 1.8%). This study supports previously proposed models of an early Pliocene turnover event in Scleractinia in the Indo-Pacific.

Broad-scale population genetics can reveal population structure across an organism’s entire range, which can enable us to determine the most efficient population-wide management strategy depending on levels of connectivity. Genetic variation and differences in genetic diversity on small-scales have been reported in anemones, but nothing is known about their broad-scale population structure, including that of “host” anemone species, which are increasingly being targeted in the aquarium trade. In this study, microsatellite markers were used as a tool to determine the population structure of a sessile, host anemone species, Heteractis magnifica, across the Indo-Pacific region. In addition, two rDNA markers were used to identify Symbiodinium from the samples, and phylogenetic analyses were used to measure diversity and geographic distribution of Symbiodinium across the region. Significant population structure was identified in H. magnifica across the Indo-Pacific, with at least three genetic breaks, possibly the result of factors such as geographic distance, geographic isolation and environmental variation. Symbiodinium associations were also affected by environmental variation and supported the geographic isolation of some regions. These results suggests that management of H. magnifica must be implemented on a local scale, due to the lack of connectivity between clusters. This study also provides further evidence for the combined effects of geographic distance and environmental distance in explaining genetic variance.

Les rivières des systèmes insulaires de la région Indo-Pacifique abritent de nombreuses espèces d’organismes migrateurs qui sont les seules espèces capables de coloniser naturellement les cours d’eau. Les stratégies de dispersion de ces organismes diadromes représentent un moteur essentiel de la structuration et de la persistance des communautés allant de l’échelle locale du cours d’eau, d’une île ou d’un archipel, à l’échelle régionale. En raison de l’isolement, les populations locales n’assurent leur pérennité qu’en maintenant une dispersion marine forte, permettant la colonisation de milieux nouveaux et un recrutement indépendant des conditions locales de reproduction. Chez les mollusques Gastéropodes, la famille des Neritidae est constituée d’espèces diadromes amphidromes à répartition restreinte et d’espèces à plus large répartition. Nous avons essayé, par l'étude des traits de vie de ces espèces, de contribuer, notamment, à la compréhension des facteurs qui régulent la dispersion et le recrutement, afin d'aider à la gestion durable de ces taxons et de leurs habitats, et ce dans un contexte de changement global et d'anthropisation croissante. Après avoir effectué la synthèse des connaissances actuelles sur les nérites amphidromes, nous avons réalisé une révision taxinomique du complexe 'Neritina pulligera' et étudié la phylogéographie de deux espèces, N. stumpffi et N. canalis, à l'aide du barcoding moléculaire et d'études morphologiques. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence la présence d'espèces cryptiques au sein du complexe étudié, et le rôle de deux barrières biogéographiques régulant la circulation des larves, la première entre le Pacifique ouest et le Pacifique central, la seconde entre l'océan Pacifique et l'océan Indien. Enfin, notre travail a également ouvert, à travers le marquage vital et la microchimie, des perspectives intéressantes dans l'étude de l'opercule qui pourrait être utilisé comme outil multiusage et archive environnementale permettant de décrypter les traits de vie des nérites. / Rivers in Indo-Pacific islands are colonised by diadromous species, and as migrating species, they are the only ones capable of naturally colonising insular freshwaters. Dispersal strategies of these diadromous species are essential for the colonisation and the persistence of freshwater communities at a local scale, but also at the island and regional scales. Because of their isolation, local populations can only be perennially maintained by an important marine dispersal, allowing the colonisation of new environments with a recruitment independent from the local reproduction conditions. Within the gastropod molluscs, the Neritidae family is composed of diadromous amphidromous species; there are widespread species and others have a more restricted distribution area. By analysing life history traits of these species, we contributed to the understanding of the factors regulating dispersal and recruitment. In the context of global change and rising human impacts on the environment, our results will bring knowledge for the sustainable management of these taxa. After having synthesised the present knowledge on amphidromous neritids, we undertook the taxonomic revision of the ‘Neritina pulligera’ complex. We also studied the phylogeography of two species, N. stumpfii and N. canalis by a molecular barcoding approach. Our results show the presence of cryptic species within the complex studied. We also show that there are two biogeographic barriers, one between the West Pacific and the Central Pacific, and the other between the Indian and the Pacific oceans, playing an important role in the regulation of oceanic larval circulation. Finally, our work on the vital marking and the microchemical analysis of the operculum, has given rise to new interesting research perspective. Indeed, the operculum could be used as an environmental archive allowing deciphering some life history traits of this group.

This dissertation is a study of early Islamicate commerce in natural luxuries of the tropical Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Rim, such as spices, ambergris and pearls, between the ninth and eleventh centuries C.E. I approach this topic by looking at a wide array of textual sources, from geographies, anecdotes, travel narratives, inscriptions, and the records of embassies, to materia medica and the oldest surviving Islamicate cookbook. I analyze these sources alongside material culture, archeological evidence from ports in Iran, Oman, and Southeast Asia, and newly-discovered shipwrecks from the Java Sea. Adapting the work of environmental scientists to the thesis, I locate this early Islamicate commerce within a bio-geographical space, the tropical "Indo-Pacific." I argue that desires for the tropical luxuries of the environmentally-distinct Indo-Pacific helped to define the cosmopolitan culture of early Islamicate societies, from Iran and Iraq to Egypt and Spain. These desires promoted an expanding Islamicate maritime commerce across the Indo-Pacific, which led to the flourishing of port-cities in southern Iran and Oman. This maritime trade expanded Islamicate geographical horizons, as reflected in the evolving "wonders" and geographical literature of the era. It also led to early contacts between the Islamic world and the peoples of the tropical Pacific Rim, a phenomenon that contributed, in time, to the formation of Islamicate societies in maritime Southeast Asia. / Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations

The world has never been more connected than it is today. While this is true for people, it is also true for Earth's flora and fauna. Unfortunately, this connectedness has contributed to unprecedented invasive species introductions around the world. Most introductions result in an introduced species dying out in the newly invaded territory and never becoming established. Other introduced species establish and persist for years, but never have a noticeable effect on local ecosystems. However, occasionally, an invasive species gets introduced to a new area and has negative impacts on native plant and animal life. The Indo-Pacific swimming crab, Charybdis hellerii, was introduced to the southern Indian River Lagoon (IRL) in the 1990s. Recently, it has been reported to be expanding its non-native range northward up the IRL and into more northerly east coast states. To better understand the ecological role C. hellerii fills in the lagoon and the threat it poses to the economically important and native Callinectes sapidus, this study utilized stable isotope analysis to assess dietary overlap and competition between these species. The results of this study indicate significant overlap in dietary resource usage suggesting C. hellerii is likely feeding on some of the same prey items and competing with native C. sapidus. Based on the increasing numbers of C. hellerii and their reported range expansion, they appear to be establishing populations in the U.S. and will continue to compete with C. sapidus. This could negatively impact C. sapidus populations in the IRL, which is bad for the crab, bad for the fishery, and bad for the lagoon. Further, competition in the IRL is concerning for the rest of the southeastern U.S. states that appear to be in the early stages of a C. hellerii invasion. The findings of this study illuminate the need for further research into the ecological niche C. hellerii is filling in the IRL and the interactions it is having with, as well as the effects it is having on, native species in the lagoon. This study and future research will allow fisheries managers to devise more effective strategies to limit the spread of C. hellerii and minimize the harm it can do in non-native environments.

The south coast of South Africa represents the extreme western end of the range of the Indo-Pacific humpback (Sousa chinensis, plumbea type) and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus), which are both confirmed to range as far west as False Bay (Jefferson & Karczmarski, 2001; Hammond et al., 2008). Individual ranging behaviour for both species however is not well resolved. Recent genetic analyses suggest that animals currently considered as plumbea type Sousa chinensis (Reeves et al., 2008) may be a separate species, Sousa plumbea (Mendez et al., 2013). In South African waters less than 1000 adult humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis, plumbea type hereafter “humpback dolphin”) may comprise the entire population (Karczmarski, 1996), while all estimates suggest the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus, hereafter “bottlenose dolphins”) population is relatively large, numbering thousands of animals (Cockcroft et al., 1992; Reisinger & Karczmarski, 2010). Both dolphin species are exposed to variable levels of anthropogenic impacts throughout their range including vessel traffic, chemical pollution and habitat degradation associated with coastal development. This thesis describes the results of a study investigating: 1) the environmental and anthropogenic factors which influence the habitat use of humpback and bottlenose dolphins in two adjacent bays on the southern Cape coast, South Africa – Mossel Bay and Vlees Bay; 2) the abundance of humpback dolphins using Mossel Bay and 3) the interaction of these two dolphin species with white sharks, and the influence this has on dolphin group sizes and habitat use in Mossel Bay. Both land-based and boat-based survey platforms were used in this study with land-based data collected during dedicated watch periods at sites in Mossel Bay (n = 6) and Vlees Bay (n = 4) between February 2011 and March 2013, with a focus on humpback and bottlenose dolphins. A surveyor’s theodolite was used at these sites to collect positional data on animals, while behavioural data were collected through direct observation. Boat-based photographic identification surveys were used to collect data on the presence of individual humpback dolphins in Mossel Bay between April 2011 and November 2013. White shark data from Mossel Bay between February 2011 and March 2013 were provided from boat-based chumming surveys for the collection of photo-ID data from the Master’s thesis of Rabi’a Ryklief, based at Oceans Research. Data were analysed using ANOVA’s, Tukey honest significance tests and generalised additive modelling (Wood, 2006) in programme R, while capture histories of humpback dolphins were analysed with RMark (Laake, 2013) using POPAN open population models (Schwarz & Arnason, 1996) and Huggins heterogeneity closed capture models (Huggins, 1989; Chao et al., 1992). Humpback dolphins socialised over sandy beach habitats in both bays, while feeding/foraging occurred over reef systems in Mossel Bay and off fine grained sandy beach habitats in Vlees Bay. Humpback dolphin resting behaviour was observed at a very low frequency and occurred in all of the primary habitat types in Mossel Bay, while in Vlees Bay resting was only observed over reefs. Bottlenose dolphins in both bays preferentially used wave cut rocky platform habitats for feeding/foraging and resting while socialising occurred in the vicinity of estuaries in Mossel Bay and fine grained sandy beach habitats in Vlees Bay. Higher sighting rates were recorded in the control site, Vlees Bay, than in Mossel Bay for both dolphin species. The largest reverse osmosis desalination plant commenced operations in the sheltered corner of Mossel Bay in October 2011 and discharged approximately five million litres (Ml) of effluent per day (between October 2011 and February 2012) and 18 Ml per day in March and April 2012. In Mossel Bay higher sighting rates of humpback dolphins occurred in the period before desalination began while bottlenose dolphin sighting rates were highest after active desalination decreased to once per month (May, 2012). During the period of peak brine discharge in Mossel Bay, sighting rates were highest for both species in Vlees Bay. Even after desalination operations decreased the sighting rate of humpback dolphins remained low. The operation of the desalination plant at full capacity in Mossel Bay may have led to reduced use of this area by both humpback and bottlenose dolphins. Key habitats in Mossel Bay for both dolphin species are shared with great white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias hereafter “white sharks”) and focus around the three estuaries and their associated near-shore reef systems. The presence of predatory white sharks may limit the time dolphins spend in a specific habitat and influence the number of animals within groups, with larger humpback dolphin groups at sites with high shark utilisation. Both dolphin species had lower individual sighting rates during periods when white shark abundance peaked. Large group sizes of humpback dolphins at Seal Island, and of bottlenose dolphins at Hartenbos and Tergniet, combined with increased rates of travelling and decreased resting and socializing suggest that these areas may pose the largest threat to dolphins due to the variety of shark size classes’ present, especially larger sharks. Closed capture models generated within year population estimates ranging from 48 to 97 individual humpback dolphins (2011: 97, 95% CI: 46 – 205; 2012: 48, 28 – 81; 2013: 68, 35 – 131) while open population modelling produced a ‘super-population’ estimate of 116 animals (95% CI: 54 – 247) using Mossel Bay. During the study 67 humpback dolphins were individually identified with 94.3 % of the individuals in good quality photographs distinctively marked. Fewer humpback dolphins may be present on the south-east and southern Cape coast, including between Algoa Bay and Mossel Bay, than initially thought (Karczmarski, 1996), as definite links exist between Algoa Bay and Plettenberg Bay (Smith-Goodwin, 1997), and Plettenberg Bay and Mossel Bay (this study). The Gouritz River mouth (21º 53' E; Ross, 1984) and De Hoop (20º 30' E; Findlay et al., 1992) were previous suggested as the western limit of this species, but within the last 20 years knowledge on the extent of their range has been greatly improved, and range extension of this species may be occurring to the west with animals present as far west as False Bay (18º 48' E; Jefferson & Karczmarski, 2001). Due to the vulnerability of this species and their wide ranging behaviour, conservation plans need to be implemented on a wide scale to ensure protection of these animals from human impacts throughout their range. A concerted effort is required to further establish the population links between the various locations on the southern Cape coast that these animals frequent. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / Zoology and Entomology / MSc / Unrestricted

Coral reefs belong to the most diverse and the most threatened ecosystems on earth. Anthropogenic stressors and climate change have led to mortalities at levels unprecedented in modern times. The aims of this thesis are to investigate aspects of the corals’ ability to reproduce, disperse, adapt and survive. Papers I-III study reproduction in a common soft coral species, Sarcophyton elegans, with previously unknown reproductive modes. Paper IV investigates genetic distribution of coral-symbiont associations in Galaxea fascicularis focusing on adaptation to the environment along the coastline of Vietnam. Sarcophyton  elegans is a gonochoric broadcast spawner with a 1:1 sex ratio. Reproduction is strictly size dependent. Oogenesis takes 19-24 months, with a new cycle commencing every year. Spermatogenesis takes 10-12 months. The majority of gametes were released during the annual austral mass spawning event after full moon in November, but spawning also occur between August and February. The polyps at the outer edge of the colonies released their gametes first, followed by polyps situated closer to the center during subsequent months. Colonies upstream in the prevailing current spawn earlier than those downstream. The colonies were arranged in clusters of alternating males and females, which spawned simultaneously and were of the same genotype. Fission and buddying is a common mode to expand locally. Additionally, females undergoing fission divided into the most fecund size classes. The G. fascicularis and their associated symbionts were not genetically coupled to each other but to environmental factors. The host displayed an inshore-offshore zonation, with higher diversity offshore. The D1a symbiont exhibited an inshore- offshore zonation. In contrast; the 5 different C symbiont types showed a latitudinal distribution gradient, which shifted in dominance north to south. The study highlights the importance of protecting resilient coral and algal genotypes in stressed areas and the need to understand reproductive modes for coral conservation. / Các rạn san hô là một trong những hệ sinh thái có tính đa dạng và bị đe dọa cao nhất trên trái đất. Các áp lực từ con người và nhiệt độ nước biển tăng (SSTs) đã gây ra hiện tượng “tẩy trắng” gây chết san hô ở mức độ cao chưa từng thấy trong thời điểm hiện tại. Mục tiêu của nghiên cứu này là tìm hiểu khả năng của san hô trong thích nghi, phân tán và sống sót nhằm duy trì quần thể. Bài báo số II-III là những nghiên cứu đầu tiên về đặc điểm sinh sản của loài san hô mềm phổ biến, Sarcophyton elegan tại Australia. Bài báo số IV nghiên cứu về phân bố nguồn gen của tảo cộng sinh trong loài san hô Galaxea fascicularis, tập trung vào sự thích nghi với môi trường dọc theo vùng biển Việt Nam, khu vực bị ô nhiễm từ lục địa. Sarcophyton elegans được biết với đặc điểm sinh sản cả vô tính và hữu tính. Loài này là loài sinh sản bằng cách phân tán trứng, với tỷ lệ giới tính là 1:1 và sự sinh sản hữu tính bị khống chế nghiêm ngặt bởi kích cỡ của tập đoàn (Bài báo II, phần phương pháp của Bài báo I). Quá trình tạo trứng kéo dài từ 19 đến 24 tháng với chu kỳ sinh sản lặp lại hàng năm, và sự sinh tinh kéo dài từ 10 đến 12 tháng. Phần lớn giao tử được giải phóng trong một thời gian ngắn sau ngày trăng tròn của tháng 11, nhưng giao tử vẫn được giải phóng trong ngày trăng tròn của các tháng từ tháng 8 đến tháng 1 năm sau. Các polyp autozooid nằm phía ngoài của tập đoàn giải phóng giao tử trước, sau đó là các polyp nằm gần lõi trong các tháng tiếp theo. Các tập đoàn ngược lên trong dòng chảy thịnh hành đẻ trứng sớm hơn các tập đoàn xuôi dòng khoảng một tháng (Bài báo II). Các tập đoàn được sắp xếp thành từng đám từ 7 đến hàng trăm tập đoàn trong mỗi nhóm, bao gồm cả đực và cái. Các tập đoàn trong cùng một nhóm sinh sản cùng một thời điểm. (Bài báo II) và mỗi nhóm có cùng một kiểu di truyền (Bài báo III) có đầy đủ 13 (có thể là 22) kiểu di truyền  khác nhau. Sự phân đôi và kết đôi phụ thuộc hoàn toàn vào kích thước và có lẽ là phương thức mở rộng phổ biến nhất. Sự phân đôi phải mất 2 năm hoặc hơn mới hoàn thành. Thêm vào đó, con cái trải qua quá trình phân đôi thành kích cỡ có khả năng sinh sản cao nhất (Bài báo III). Có 6 nhóm haplotypes (mtDNA) của loài G. fascicularis và tảo cộng sinh Symbiodinium (ITS2 rDNA) không đóng cặp với nhau nhưng lại gắn với các yếu tố môi trường, có thể như kết quả của phương thức sinh sản của vật chủ (Bài báo IV). Vật chủ có sự phân vùng rõ rệt giữa gần bờ và xa bờ, với sự đa dạng cao hơn hẳn của các rạn xa bờ so với các rạn gần bờ, khu vực thường xuyên bị độ đục, ô nhiễm và lắng đọng trầm tích tác động. Tảo cộng sinh Symbiodinium D1a ITS2 điểm hình của sự phân vùng gần bờ và xa bờ. Ngược lại, 5 loại C khác lại có sự phân vùng theo vĩ tuyến, với sự tăng lên rõ rệt theo chiều Bắc-Nam, cùng với sự ổn định SST và sự tăng lên của các SST. Nghiên cứu này đã chỉ rõ tầm quan trọng trong bảo vệ các loài san hô và tảo biển bản địa tại các khu vực bị đe dọa (Bài báo IV) và sự cần thiết phải hiểu các phương thức sinh sản (Bài báo II-III) và các thông số môi trường trong việc xác định mức độ đa dạn sinh học và sự hấp thụ của sinh vật cộng sinh trong san hô cứng và san hô mềm. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

The recent development of the Indo-Pacific region is characterised by the changing balance of power and the emergences of new forms of security cooperation. The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD) between Japan, the United States (U.S.), Australia and India came back into existence in 2017 after their failed attempt in 2007-2008. This thesis attempts to investigate what factors explain the re-emergence of the QSD by synthesising several alignment/alliance theories in International Relations (IR). Given the previous research on the QSD and theoretical discussions, this thesis points out the two key factors that contributed to the re-emergence of the QSD: the shared threat perception towards China and the shared objectives in the Indo-Pacific region. The content analysis of a number of official policy documents and press statements revealed that Japan, the U.S., Australia and India have increasingly perceived China as a threat and coordinated their policy objectives in the Indo-Pacific region under the concept of the Free and Open-Indo Pacific.