Thesis (MScMedSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Obesity is a major risk factor for ischaemic heart disease. Obesity-induced metabolic abnormalities have been associated with increased oxidative stress which may play an important role in the increased susceptibility to myocardial dysfunction and ischaemiareperfusion (I/R) injury seen in obesity. The pineal gland hormone, melatonin, has powerful antioxidant properties. Previous studies have shown that short-term or acute melatonin administration protects the normal healthy heart of lean animals against I/R damage. However, the effects of melatonin on the heart in obesity remain unknown. Moreover, the myocardial signalling mechanisms associated with the cardioprotective effects of melatonin have not been established. Using a rat model of diet induced obesity, we set out to: 1) investigate the effects of chronic melatonin administration on the development of diet-induced systemic alterations including biometric and metabolic parameters and oxidative stress, 2) determine whether chronic melatonin treatment protects the myocardium against ischaemia-reperfusion injury, and 3) determine whether melatonin treatment confers cardioprotection by altering the reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) pathway signalling and the pro-apoptotic p38 MAPK, AMPK and GLUT-4 expression. Male rats weighing 200±20g were randomly allocated to four groups: 1) C, control rats receiving a standard commercial rat chow and drinking water without melatonin; 2) CM, control rats receiving melatonin (4mg/kg/day) in drinking water; 3) D, diet-induced obesity rats, receiving a high calorie diet and drinking water without melatonin; 4) DM, diet-induced obesity rats, receiving melatonin in drinking water. After 16 weeks of treatment and feeding, rats were weighed and blood and myocardial tissue collected to document biochemical and molecular biological changes. Hearts were perfused on the isolated working rat heart perfusion apparatus for the evaluation of myocardial function and infarct size. The Reperfusion Injury Salvage Kinases (RISK) pathway (PKB/Akt (Ser-473), ERK p42/ p44) and p38 MAPK (mitogenactivated protein kinase) were investigated in pre-and post-ischaemic hearts using Western blotting techniques. Post-ischaemic activation of AMPK (5’AMP-activated protein kinase) (Thr- 172) and GLUT-4 (glucose transporter) expression were also investigated. Serum and baseline myocardial glutathione (GSH) content were measured. In addition, serum lipid peroxidation products: thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS), conjugated dienes (CD) and lipid hydroperoxide (LOOH), were also determined. The high-calorie diet caused increases in body weight, visceral adiposity, heart weight, serum insulin, leptin, blood triglycerides, and low HDL-cholesterol levels. Blood glucose levels were similar for both diet fed rats and controls. Myocardial glutathione, serum glutathione, total cholesterol, TBARS, LOOH, CD as well as total cholesterol (TC) levels were not affected by the high calorie diet. Chronic melatonin treatment reduced body weight gain, visceral adiposity, heart weight, blood triglycerides, serum insulin, HOMA index, serum leptin (DM vs D, p<0.01), and increased blood HDL-C in diet treated rats while there was no effect on these parameters in control rats, despite the reduction in body weight, heart weight and visceral adiposity. Melatonin treatment had no effect on myocardial or serum GSH and LOOH in either control or diet animals. It however reduced TBARS and CD in the diet and control groups, respectively. At baseline, chronic melatonin treatment caused a significant increase in phospho-PKB/total PKB ratio and a concomitant reduction in phospho-p38 MAPK/total p38 MAPK ratio of control hearts while there were no such effects on diet-induced-obesity hearts. Infarct size was significantly reduced by melatonin in both diet and control groups (DM: 16.6±2.0%; D: 38.4±2.6% (p < 0.001), and CM: 12.8±1.5%; C: 30.4±1.0%, p<0.001). After coronary artery occlusion and 30 minutes of reperfusion, melatonin increased percentage recovery of aortic output (DM: 28.5±6.5%; D: 6.2±6.2%, p<0.01), cardiac output (DM: 44.4±5.2%; D: 26.6±5.1%, p < 0.01) and total work (DM: 34.5±5.6%; D: 20.4±7.9%, p<0.05) of diet-induced obesity hearts, while having no effect on control hearts. During reperfusion, hearts from melatonin treated rats had increased activation of PKB/Akt (p<0.01), ERK42/44 (p<0.05), and reduced p38 MAPK activation (p<0.05). There was no difference in post-ischaemic activation of AMPK (Thr-172) and GLUT-4 expression in either control or diet fed rats. We successfully demonstrated that chronic melatonin treatment prevented the development of diet-induced metabolic abnormalities and improved ex vivo myocardial function. Melatonin protected the heart against ischaemia-reperfusion injury that was exacerbated in obesity. This was achieved by activation of the RISK pathway. The antioxidant properties of melatonin were involved in these cardioprotective effects. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vetsug of obesiteit is een van die hoof risikofaktore vir iskemiese hartsiekte. Obesiteitgeinduseerde metaboliese abnormaliteite gaan met verhoogde oksidatiewe stres gepaard wat op sy beurt ‘n belangrike rol mag speel in die miokardiale wanfunksie en verhoogde vatbaarheid vir iskemie-herperfusie (I/H) beskadiging, kenmerkend van vetsug. Melatonien, die hormoon afgeskei deur die pineaalklier, is ‘n kragtige anti-oksidant. Vorige studies het getoon dat kort-termyn of akute toediening van melatonien die normale hart van gesonde diere teen I/H beskadiging deur middel van sy anti-oksidant aksies beskerm. Die effek van melatonien op die hart in obesiteit is egter nog onbekend. Hierbenewens is die miokardiale seintransduksie meganismes geassosieer met die beskermende effekte van die hormoon nog nie ontrafel nie. ‘n Model van dieet-geinduseerde obesiteit in rotte is gebruik om die volgende te bepaal: (i) die effek van kroniese melatonientoediening op die ontwikkeling van dieet-geinduseerde sistemiese veranderinge soos biometriese en metaboliese parameters en oksidatiewe stres (ii) die effek van kroniese melatonienbehandeling op die respons van die hart op I/H beskadiging en (iii) die rol van herperfusie beskadiging op die aktivering van PKB/Akt en ERK42/44 (die sg RISK seintransduksiepad), die pro-apoptotiese p38MAPK, AMPK sowel as die uitdrukking van GLUT-4. Manlike Wistar rotte (200±20g) is ewekansig in vier groepe verdeel: (i) C, kontrole rotte wat ‘n standaard rotdieet en drinkwater sonder melatonien ontvang (ii) CM, kontrole rotte wat melatonien (4mg/kg/dag) ontvang (iii) D, dieet-geϊnduseerde vet rotte wat ‘n hoë kalorie dieet en drinkwater sonder melatonien ontvang (iv) DM, dieet-geϊnduseerde vet rotte wat melatonien (4mg/kg/dag) in die drinkwater ontvang. Na 16 weke van behandeling, is die rotte geweeg, bloed en hartweefsel gekollekteer vir biochemiese en molekulêre biologie bepalings. Harte is geperfuseer volgens die werkhartmodel, blootgestel aan iskemie/herperfusie vir evaluering van funksionele herstel en infarktgrootte. Uitdrukking en aktivering van PKB/Akt (Ser-473), ERKp42/p44 en p38MAPK van pre-en postiskemiese hartweefsel is met behulp van Western blot bepaal. Postiskemiese aktivering van AMPK (5’AMP-aktiveerde proteϊen kinase) (Thr-172) en GLUT-4 (glukose transporter) is op soortgelyke wyse bepaal. Serum en basislyn hartweefsel glutatioon (GSH) inhoud asook tiobarbituursuur reaktiewe substans (TBARS), gekonjugeerde diene (CD) en lipiedhidroperoksied (LOOH) konsentrasies is bepaal. Resultate Die hoë kalorie diet het ‘n toename in liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, hartgewig, serum insulien, leptien, plasma trigliseried en lae HDL-cholesterol vlakke teweegebring. Bloed glukosevlakke was egter dieselfde in die vet en kontrole rotte. Miokardiale glutatioon, serum glutatioon, totale cholesterol, TBARS, LOOH, CD is nie deur die dieet beinvloed nie. Chroniese melatonien behandeling het die liggaamsgewig, visserale vet, hartgewig, plasma trigliseried, serum insulien en leptien, HOMA indeks verlaag (DM vs D, p<0.05) en die HDL-cholesterol verhoog in die dieetrotte, terwyl dit geen effek op hierdie parameters in kontrole rotte gehad het nie (uitgesonderd ‘n afname in liggaamsgewig, hartgewig en visserale vet). Melatonien behandeling het geen effek op hart of serum GSH en LOOH in kontrole en vet rotte gehad nie. Dit het egter die TBARS en CD in beide vet en kontrole rotte verlaag. Chroniese melatonien toediening het ‘n beduidende toename in basislyn fosfo PKB//totale PKB ratio en ‘n afname in fosfo p38MAPK/totale p38MAPK ratio teweegebring in harte van kontrole rotte, maar soortgelyke effekte is nie in die harte van die vet rotte waargeneem nie. Infarktgrootte is beduidend deur melatonienbehandeling verlaag in beide dieet en kontrole groepe (DM: 16.6± 5.2%, D: 38.4 ±2.6% (p<0.001); CM: 12.8± 1.5%; C 30.4±1.0 (p<0.001). Na koronere arterie afbinding en 30 min van herperfusie, het melatonien die persentasie herstel van aorta omset (DM: 28.5± 6.5%; D: 6.2± 6.2%, p<0.01), kardiale omset ( DM: 44.4± 5.2%D: 26.6±5.1%, p<0.01) en totale werk (DM: 34.5 5.6%; D 20.4± 7.9%, p<0.05) in die harte van dieetrotte verbeter, terwyl dit sonder effek was in kontrole harte. Tydens herperfusie het harte van melatonienbehandelde rotte verhoogde aktivering van PKB/Akt (p<0.01) en ERKp42/p44 (p<0.05) getoon, terwyl aktivering van p38MAPK verlaag is (p<0.05). Geen verskil in postiskemiese aktivering van AMPK en GLUT-4 uitdrukking is in beide kontrole en dieetrotte waargeneem nie. Ons het daarin geslaag om aan te toon dat chroniese melatonienbehandeling die ontwikkeling van dieet-geϊnduseerde metaboliese abnormaliteite beduidend kan voorkom en ex vivo miokardiale funksie verbeter. Melatonien het ook die hart teen iskemie/herperfusie beskadiging beskerm in beide kontrole en dieetrotte. Bogenoemde veranderinge het met aktivering van PKB/Akt en ERKp42/p44 gepaard gegaan. Die anti-oksidant effekte van melatonien was heelwaarskynlik hierby betrokke.

Memory CD8 T cells offer increased protection to immune hosts by rapidly eliminating pathogen-infected cells during re-infection. Generating and sustaining a protective memory CD8 T cell response is considered a hallmark of adaptive immunity. Extensive research has been devoted to understanding the parameters affecting memory CD8 T cell generation after infection or immunization in order to design the most effective vaccines. An accepted notion in the field is that increased protection from re-infection is afforded by the generation of a large number of memory CD8 T cells. Consecutive prime-boost immunization strategies that elicit secondary responses are often used to increase the absolute numbers of memory CD8 T cells. While parameters affecting the generation of primary memory CD8 T cells are well known, the factors influencing the development of re-stimulated secondary CD8 T cell responses remain understudied. Here, I addressed the mechanisms involved in the generation and development of secondary memory CD8 T cells. I found that the time at which primary memory CD8 T cells enter into an immune response during re-infection impacts their fate and differentiation into secondary memory CD8 T cells. Late-entry of primary memory CD8 T cells into an immune response (relative to the initiation of infection) not only facilitates expression of transcription factors associated with memory formation in secondary effector CD8 T cells, but also influences the ability of secondary memory CD8 T cells to localize within the lymph nodes, produce interleukin-2 cytokine (IL-2), and undergo robust antigen-driven proliferation. The timing of stimulation of primary memory CD8 T cells also impacts the duration of expression of the high-affinity IL-2 receptor (CD25) on secondary effector CD8 T cells and their sensitivity to IL-2 signaling. Importantly, by blocking or enhancing IL-2 signaling in developing secondary CD8 T cells, I verify the role of IL-2 in controlling the differentiation of secondary CD8 T cell responses. The data I present herein suggest that the process of primary memory-to-secondary memory CD8 T cell differentiation is not fixed and can be manipulated, a notion with implications in the design of future prime-boost vaccination approaches. Although vaccines are designed and intended to benefit a range of individuals, at times the efficacy of a vaccination regime depends on the overall health status of a host. Thus, in another portion of my thesis work I explored the extent to which obesity compromises the differentiation and maintenance of protective memory CD8 T cell responses. I found that diet-induced obesity did not impact the maintenance of pre-existing memory CD8 T cells, including their acquisition of a long-term memory phenotype (i.e., CD27hi, CD62Lhi, KLRG1low) and function (i.e., cytokine production, antigen-driven secondary expansion, and memory CD8 T cell-mediated protection). Additionally, diet-induced obesity did not influence the differentiation and maintenance of newly evoked memory CD8 T cell responses, in inbred and outbred hosts, that were generated in response to different types of systemic (LCMV, L. monocytogenes) and/or localized (influenza virus) infections. Interestingly, I found that the rate of naïve-to-memory CD8 T cell differentiation after a peptide-coated dendritic cell immunization was similar in lean and obese hosts. This suggests that obesity-associated inflammation is unlike pathogen- or adjuvant-induced inflammation, and does not influence the development of an endogenous memory CD8 T cell response. My studies reveal that the obese environment does not influence the development or maintenance of memory CD8 T cell responses that are either primed before or after obesity is established. This is a surprising notion with implications for future studies aiming to elucidate the role of obesity in susceptibility to infection and vaccine efficacy. Collectively, the data presented here further the understanding of memory CD8 T cell responses in contexts of health and disease.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by disordered insulin secretion from the pancreatic β cell and chronic hyperglycemia. In order to maintain adequate levels of insulin secretion, the β cell relies on a highly developed and active endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Calcium localized in this compartment serves as a cofactor for key proteins and enzymes involved in insulin production and maturation and is critical for ER health and function. The ER Ca2+ pool is maintained largely through activity of the sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase 2 (SERCA2) pump, which pumps two Ca2+ ions into the ER during each catalytic cycle. The goal of our research is to understand the molecular mechanisms through which SERCA2 maintains β cell function and whole body glucose metabolism. Our previous work has revealed marked dysregulation of β cell SERCA2 expression and activity under diabetic conditions. Using a mixture of pro-inflammatory cytokines to model the diabetic milieu, we found that SERCA2 activity and protein stability were decreased through nitric oxide and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)mediated signaling pathways. Moreover, SERCA2 expression, intracellular Ca2+ storage, and β cell death under diabetic conditions were rescued by pharmacologic or genetic inhibition of AMPK. These findings provided novel insight into pathways leading to altered β cell Ca2+ homeostasis and reduced β cell survival in diabetes. To next define the role of SERCA2 in the regulation of whole body glucose homeostasis, SERCA2 heterozygous mice (S2HET) were challenged with high fat diet (HFD). Compare to wild-type controls, S2HET mice had lower serum insulin and significantly reduced glucose tolerance with similar adiposity and systemic and tissue specific insulin sensitivity, suggesting an impairment in insulin secretion rather than insulin action. Consistent with this, S2HET mice exhibited reduced β cell mass, decreased β cell proliferation, increased ER stress, and impaired insulin production and processing. Furthermore, S2HET islets displayed impaired cytosolic Ca2+ oscillations and reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, while a small molecule SERCA2 activator was able to rescue these defects. In aggregate, these data suggest a critical role for SERCA2 and the maintenance of ER Ca2+ stores in the β cell compensatory response to diet induced obesity.

No description available.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Obesity is a medical condition in which an energy imbalance leads to excessive accumulation of body fat. Obesity leads to a reduction in life expectancy through its association with chronic diseases of lifestyle. The prevalence of obesity is rapidly increasing throughout the world. It is now accepted that most cases of obesity result from an interaction between genetic and environmental factors. This rapid increase in obesity generally leads to an increase in morbidity and mortality from chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis and cancer of which obesity is a risk factor. There is a lack of information in molecular research to explain how obesity predisposes individuals to these diseases. Proteomics is a molecular tool and a set of techniques used to identify changes at protein level from a diseased state. This study aims to identify differentially expressed proteins in serum of obese rats fed different isocaloric diets using proteomics.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A obesidade, doença resultante do acúmulo excessivo de gordura corporal, é importante fator de risco para diabetes mellitus tipo 2, dislipidemias e doenças cardiovasculares, doenças de alta prevalência em todo o mundo. O processo de transição nutricional decorrente da globalização contribuiu para o crescente número de indivíduos com obesidade, principalmente pela modificação nos hábitos alimentares da população, com ampla inclusão de produtos industrializados ricos em gordura saturada, sal e açúcar, denominada dieta ocidental. Os mecanismos pelos quais a obesidade induzida por dieta leva ao desenvolvimento de doenças cardiovasculares ainda não estão completamente esclarecidos na literatura, porém sabe-se que a obesidade leva ao comprometimento da função cardíaca e do metabolismo energético, aumentando a morbidade e mortalidade. Em grande parte dos estudos relacionados à obesidade, o metabolismo energético celular comprometido associa-se à disfunção mitocondrial. Neste contexto, torna-se importante avaliar a função mitocondrial na obesidade, visto que as mitocôndrias são organelas com funções-chave no metabolismo energético. No presente estudo, avaliamos inicialmente o efeito obesogênico da dieta ocidental em camundongos Swiss por 16 semanas a partir do desmame. Para tal, analisamos a ingestão alimentar, evolução da massa corporal, Índice de Lee, peso das gorduras epididimal e retroperitoneal, peso e morfologia do fígado, relação entre o peso do fígado/massa corporal, peso do ventrículo esquerdo (VE)/massa corporal, glicemia de jejum e teste intraperitoneal de tolerância à glicose. Avaliamos também o consumo de oxigênio das fibras cardíacas através da respirometria de alta resolução. Além disso, o conteúdo das proteínas envolvidas no metabolismo energético: Carnitina Palmitoil Transferase 1 (CPT1), proteína desacopladora 2 (UCP2), Transportadores de glicose 1 e 4 (GLUT1 e GLUT4), proteína quinase ativada por AMP (AMPK), proteína quinase ativada por AMP fosforilada (pAMPK), receptor de insulina &#946; (IR&#946;) e substrato do receptor de insulina 1 (IRS-1) foi determinado por western blotting. Nossos resultados confirmaram o caráter obesogênico da dieta ocidental, visto que os camundongos submetidos a esta dieta (GO), apresentaram-se hiperfágicos (P<0,001) e obesos (72,031,82, P<0,001), com aumento progressivo no ganho de massa corporal. Além do aumento significativo dos parâmetros: Índice de Lee (362,902,44, P<0,001), gorduras epididimal e retroperitonial (3,310,15 e 1,610,11, P<0,001), relação entre o peso do fígado/massa corporal (0,060,003, P<0,001) e peso de ventrículo esquerdo (VE)/massa corporal (0,080,002, P<0,01), hiperglicemia de jejum (192,1014,75, P<0,01), intolerância à glicose (P<0,05, P<0,01) e deposição ectópica de gordura no fígado. A respirometria de alta resolução evidenciou disfunção mitocondrial cardíaca no grupo GO, com reduzida capacidade de oxidação de carboidratos e ácidos graxos (P<0,001) e aumento do desacoplamento entre a fosforilação oxidativa e a síntese de ATP (P<0,001). Os resultados de western blotting evidenciaram aumento nos conteúdos de CPT1 (1,160,08, P<0,05) e UCP2 (1,080,06, P<0,05) e redução no conteúdo de IRS-1 (0,600,08, P<0,05). Não houve diferença significativa nos conteúdos de GLUT1, GLUT4, AMPK, pAMPK, pAMPK/AMPK e IR&#946;. Em conclusão, o consumo da dieta ocidental resultou no desenvolvimento de obesidade com disfunção mitocondrial associada a alterações no metabolismo energético. / Obesity, a disease resulting from excessive accumulation of body fat is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases, which are of high prevalence worldwide. Nutritional transition, a process associated with globalization, has contributed to growing obesity, mainly by changing eating habits of the population, with broad inclusion of industrial products high in saturated fat, salt and sugar, the called Western diet. The mechanisms by which diet-induced obesity leads to cardiovascular disease are not completely understood, but it is known that obesity leads to impairment of cardiac function and energy metabolism, increasing morbidity and mortality. In most obesity studies, the related cellular energy metabolism is compromised associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. In this context, it becomes important to asses mitochondrial function in obesity, since mitochondria are organelles with key roles in energy metabolism. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of the Western diet in Swiss mice for 16 weeks from weaning. We analyzed the food intake, changes in body weight, Lee index, weight of epididymal and retroperitoneal fat, weight and morphology of the liver, the ratio of liver weight /body weight, weight of the left ventricle (LV)/body weight , fasting plasma glucose and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test. We also evaluated the oxygen consumption of cardiac fibers by high-resolution respirometry. Furthermore, proteins content involved in energy metabolism: carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1 (CPT1), uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), glucose transporters 1 and 4 (GLUT1 and GLUT4), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylated (pAMPK), insulin receptor &#946; (IR&#946;) and insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) was determined by western blotting. Our results confirmed the obesogenic role of the Western diet. Thus, mice subjected to Western diet (WG), presented hyperphagia (P<0.001) and obesity (72.031.82, P<0.001), with a progressive increase in body mass gain. Also, the WG group compared to control had statistically significant increase of the all parameters studied: Lee index (362.902.44, P<0.001), epididymal and retroperitoneal fat (3.310.15 and 1.610.11, P<0.001), ratio of liver weight/body weight (0.060.003, P<0.001) and weight of the left ventricle (LV)/body weight (0.080.002, P<0.01), fasting hyperglycemia (192.1014.75, P<0.01), glucose intolerance (P<0.05, P<0.01) and ectopic fat deposition in liver. High-resolution respirometry showed cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in the WG group, with reduced capacity of oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids and increased uncoupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. Western blotting results revealed an increase in CPT1 (1.160.08, P<0.05) and UCP2 (1.080.06, P<0.05) content and reduction in IRS-1 content (0.600.08, P<0.05). There was no statistically significant difference in the GLUT1, GLUT4, AMPK, pAMPK, pAMPK/AMPK and IR&#946; content. In conclusion, the Western diet consumption resulted in the development of obesity with mitochondrial dysfunction associated to alterations in energy metabolism.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A obesidade, doença resultante do acúmulo excessivo de gordura corporal, é importante fator de risco para diabetes mellitus tipo 2, dislipidemias e doenças cardiovasculares, doenças de alta prevalência em todo o mundo. O processo de transição nutricional decorrente da globalização contribuiu para o crescente número de indivíduos com obesidade, principalmente pela modificação nos hábitos alimentares da população, com ampla inclusão de produtos industrializados ricos em gordura saturada, sal e açúcar, denominada dieta ocidental. Os mecanismos pelos quais a obesidade induzida por dieta leva ao desenvolvimento de doenças cardiovasculares ainda não estão completamente esclarecidos na literatura, porém sabe-se que a obesidade leva ao comprometimento da função cardíaca e do metabolismo energético, aumentando a morbidade e mortalidade. Em grande parte dos estudos relacionados à obesidade, o metabolismo energético celular comprometido associa-se à disfunção mitocondrial. Neste contexto, torna-se importante avaliar a função mitocondrial na obesidade, visto que as mitocôndrias são organelas com funções-chave no metabolismo energético. No presente estudo, avaliamos inicialmente o efeito obesogênico da dieta ocidental em camundongos Swiss por 16 semanas a partir do desmame. Para tal, analisamos a ingestão alimentar, evolução da massa corporal, Índice de Lee, peso das gorduras epididimal e retroperitoneal, peso e morfologia do fígado, relação entre o peso do fígado/massa corporal, peso do ventrículo esquerdo (VE)/massa corporal, glicemia de jejum e teste intraperitoneal de tolerância à glicose. Avaliamos também o consumo de oxigênio das fibras cardíacas através da respirometria de alta resolução. Além disso, o conteúdo das proteínas envolvidas no metabolismo energético: Carnitina Palmitoil Transferase 1 (CPT1), proteína desacopladora 2 (UCP2), Transportadores de glicose 1 e 4 (GLUT1 e GLUT4), proteína quinase ativada por AMP (AMPK), proteína quinase ativada por AMP fosforilada (pAMPK), receptor de insulina &#946; (IR&#946;) e substrato do receptor de insulina 1 (IRS-1) foi determinado por western blotting. Nossos resultados confirmaram o caráter obesogênico da dieta ocidental, visto que os camundongos submetidos a esta dieta (GO), apresentaram-se hiperfágicos (P<0,001) e obesos (72,031,82, P<0,001), com aumento progressivo no ganho de massa corporal. Além do aumento significativo dos parâmetros: Índice de Lee (362,902,44, P<0,001), gorduras epididimal e retroperitonial (3,310,15 e 1,610,11, P<0,001), relação entre o peso do fígado/massa corporal (0,060,003, P<0,001) e peso de ventrículo esquerdo (VE)/massa corporal (0,080,002, P<0,01), hiperglicemia de jejum (192,1014,75, P<0,01), intolerância à glicose (P<0,05, P<0,01) e deposição ectópica de gordura no fígado. A respirometria de alta resolução evidenciou disfunção mitocondrial cardíaca no grupo GO, com reduzida capacidade de oxidação de carboidratos e ácidos graxos (P<0,001) e aumento do desacoplamento entre a fosforilação oxidativa e a síntese de ATP (P<0,001). Os resultados de western blotting evidenciaram aumento nos conteúdos de CPT1 (1,160,08, P<0,05) e UCP2 (1,080,06, P<0,05) e redução no conteúdo de IRS-1 (0,600,08, P<0,05). Não houve diferença significativa nos conteúdos de GLUT1, GLUT4, AMPK, pAMPK, pAMPK/AMPK e IR&#946;. Em conclusão, o consumo da dieta ocidental resultou no desenvolvimento de obesidade com disfunção mitocondrial associada a alterações no metabolismo energético. / Obesity, a disease resulting from excessive accumulation of body fat is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases, which are of high prevalence worldwide. Nutritional transition, a process associated with globalization, has contributed to growing obesity, mainly by changing eating habits of the population, with broad inclusion of industrial products high in saturated fat, salt and sugar, the called Western diet. The mechanisms by which diet-induced obesity leads to cardiovascular disease are not completely understood, but it is known that obesity leads to impairment of cardiac function and energy metabolism, increasing morbidity and mortality. In most obesity studies, the related cellular energy metabolism is compromised associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. In this context, it becomes important to asses mitochondrial function in obesity, since mitochondria are organelles with key roles in energy metabolism. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of the Western diet in Swiss mice for 16 weeks from weaning. We analyzed the food intake, changes in body weight, Lee index, weight of epididymal and retroperitoneal fat, weight and morphology of the liver, the ratio of liver weight /body weight, weight of the left ventricle (LV)/body weight , fasting plasma glucose and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test. We also evaluated the oxygen consumption of cardiac fibers by high-resolution respirometry. Furthermore, proteins content involved in energy metabolism: carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1 (CPT1), uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), glucose transporters 1 and 4 (GLUT1 and GLUT4), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylated (pAMPK), insulin receptor &#946; (IR&#946;) and insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) was determined by western blotting. Our results confirmed the obesogenic role of the Western diet. Thus, mice subjected to Western diet (WG), presented hyperphagia (P<0.001) and obesity (72.031.82, P<0.001), with a progressive increase in body mass gain. Also, the WG group compared to control had statistically significant increase of the all parameters studied: Lee index (362.902.44, P<0.001), epididymal and retroperitoneal fat (3.310.15 and 1.610.11, P<0.001), ratio of liver weight/body weight (0.060.003, P<0.001) and weight of the left ventricle (LV)/body weight (0.080.002, P<0.01), fasting hyperglycemia (192.1014.75, P<0.01), glucose intolerance (P<0.05, P<0.01) and ectopic fat deposition in liver. High-resolution respirometry showed cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction in the WG group, with reduced capacity of oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids and increased uncoupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. Western blotting results revealed an increase in CPT1 (1.160.08, P<0.05) and UCP2 (1.080.06, P<0.05) content and reduction in IRS-1 content (0.600.08, P<0.05). There was no statistically significant difference in the GLUT1, GLUT4, AMPK, pAMPK, pAMPK/AMPK and IR&#946; content. In conclusion, the Western diet consumption resulted in the development of obesity with mitochondrial dysfunction associated to alterations in energy metabolism.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A obesidade é um dos maiores problemas de saúde pública que cresce em todo o mundo, resultante de um desequilíbrio entre ingestão alimentar e gasto energético. Pode-se dizer que a obesidade é o principal fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doenças crônicas de maior prevalência como dislipidemias, doenças cardiovasculares, diabetes do tipo 2 e esteatose hepática não alcóolica, acarretando na redução da qualidade e expectativa de vida. A Grelina é um hormônio sintetizado pelo estômago, que atua em diferentes tecidos através de um receptor específico (GHS-R1a), incluindo hipotálamo e tecidos periféricos, como o fígado. Esse hormônio está envolvido no comportamento alimentar e adiposidade, modulando o armazenamento ou utilização dos substratos energéticos no coração, músculo esquelético, adipócitos e fígado, além disso, revela-se de grande importância na manutenção do metabolismo energético hepático. Estes dados suportam a hipótese de que as vias de sinalização responsivas à grelina são um importante componente da regulação do metabolismo energético hepático e da homeostase glicêmica. O objetivo deste trabalho, foi estudar o metabolismo energético hepático e a sinalização da grelina em camundongos Swiss adultos obesos submetidos a dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidratos simples. Avaliamos o efeito desta dieta a partir do 21 dia de idade (desmame) até o 133 dia destes animais, através de parâmetros biométricos e bioquímicos, avaliação histomorfológica, respirometria de alta resolução, conteúdo de glicogênio hepático e conteúdo de algumas proteínas envolvidas na sinalização de insulina e grelina, além do metabolismo energético hepático. Baseado em nossos resultados observamos que o consumo de dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidrato simples durante 16 semanas causa hiperfagia, levando ao quadro de obesidade na idade adulta e prejuízo nas vias de sinalização dos hormônios insulina e grelina, que são importantes moduladores do metabolismo energético hepático, favorecendo o desenvolvimento de esteatose hepática não alcoólica. / Obesity is a major public health problem growing around the world, resulting from an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure. Obesity is one of the main risk factor for developing the most prevalent chronic diseases as dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fat liver disease, resulting in lower life expectancy and quality of life. Ghrelin is a hormone synthesized into the stomach, which has an important role in different tissues by a specific receptor (GHS-R1a), including the hypothalamus and peripheral tissues such as the liver. This hormone is involved in feeding behavior and adiposity by modulating storage or use of energy substrates in heart, skeletal muscle, adipocytes and liver. Moreover, Ghrelin is important in maintaining liver energy metabolism. These data support the hypothesis that ghrelin signaling pathways is a key component in the regulation of energy metabolism and hepatic glucose homeostasis. The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatic energy metabolism and signaling of ghrelin in obese adults Swiss mice fed the Western diet, rich in saturated fat and simple carboidrate. We analyzed the effect of this diet starting from 21 days of age (weaning) up to 133 days, using biometric and biochemical parameters, histomorphological assessment, high resolution respirometry, hepatic glycogen content and proteins content involved in insulin and ghrelin signaling besides the hepatic energy metabolism. Based on our results we found that the consumption of rich Western diet for 16 weeks promoves overeating leading to obesity in adulthood, metabolic desorders and impairment in signaling pathways of hormones insulin and ghrelin, which are important metabolic modulators of liver energy, contributing to the development of NAFLD.

Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / A obesidade é um dos maiores problemas de saúde pública que cresce em todo o mundo, resultante de um desequilíbrio entre ingestão alimentar e gasto energético. Pode-se dizer que a obesidade é o principal fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doenças crônicas de maior prevalência como dislipidemias, doenças cardiovasculares, diabetes do tipo 2 e esteatose hepática não alcóolica, acarretando na redução da qualidade e expectativa de vida. A Grelina é um hormônio sintetizado pelo estômago, que atua em diferentes tecidos através de um receptor específico (GHS-R1a), incluindo hipotálamo e tecidos periféricos, como o fígado. Esse hormônio está envolvido no comportamento alimentar e adiposidade, modulando o armazenamento ou utilização dos substratos energéticos no coração, músculo esquelético, adipócitos e fígado, além disso, revela-se de grande importância na manutenção do metabolismo energético hepático. Estes dados suportam a hipótese de que as vias de sinalização responsivas à grelina são um importante componente da regulação do metabolismo energético hepático e da homeostase glicêmica. O objetivo deste trabalho, foi estudar o metabolismo energético hepático e a sinalização da grelina em camundongos Swiss adultos obesos submetidos a dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidratos simples. Avaliamos o efeito desta dieta a partir do 21 dia de idade (desmame) até o 133 dia destes animais, através de parâmetros biométricos e bioquímicos, avaliação histomorfológica, respirometria de alta resolução, conteúdo de glicogênio hepático e conteúdo de algumas proteínas envolvidas na sinalização de insulina e grelina, além do metabolismo energético hepático. Baseado em nossos resultados observamos que o consumo de dieta ocidental rica em gordura saturada e carboidrato simples durante 16 semanas causa hiperfagia, levando ao quadro de obesidade na idade adulta e prejuízo nas vias de sinalização dos hormônios insulina e grelina, que são importantes moduladores do metabolismo energético hepático, favorecendo o desenvolvimento de esteatose hepática não alcoólica. / Obesity is a major public health problem growing around the world, resulting from an imbalance between food intake and energy expenditure. Obesity is one of the main risk factor for developing the most prevalent chronic diseases as dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fat liver disease, resulting in lower life expectancy and quality of life. Ghrelin is a hormone synthesized into the stomach, which has an important role in different tissues by a specific receptor (GHS-R1a), including the hypothalamus and peripheral tissues such as the liver. This hormone is involved in feeding behavior and adiposity by modulating storage or use of energy substrates in heart, skeletal muscle, adipocytes and liver. Moreover, Ghrelin is important in maintaining liver energy metabolism. These data support the hypothesis that ghrelin signaling pathways is a key component in the regulation of energy metabolism and hepatic glucose homeostasis. The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatic energy metabolism and signaling of ghrelin in obese adults Swiss mice fed the Western diet, rich in saturated fat and simple carboidrate. We analyzed the effect of this diet starting from 21 days of age (weaning) up to 133 days, using biometric and biochemical parameters, histomorphological assessment, high resolution respirometry, hepatic glycogen content and proteins content involved in insulin and ghrelin signaling besides the hepatic energy metabolism. Based on our results we found that the consumption of rich Western diet for 16 weeks promoves overeating leading to obesity in adulthood, metabolic desorders and impairment in signaling pathways of hormones insulin and ghrelin, which are important metabolic modulators of liver energy, contributing to the development of NAFLD.

Le système endocannabinoïde (SEC) a récemment émergé comme un important modulateurde la prise alimentaire et de la balance énergétique. Les récepteurs cannabinoïdes de type 1(récepteurs CB1) et ses ligands endogènes, le 2-arachidonoyl-glycérol (2-AG) et l’anandamide(AEA), sont largement présents au sein du cerveau ainsi qu’au niveau des organespériphériques impliqués dans la régulation du métabolisme énergétique, tels que le foie, letissu adipeux, les muscles squelettiques, le pancréas et le tractus gastro-intestinal. Lastimulation pharmacologique des récepteurs CB1 conduit généralement à une augmentation dela prise et du stockage énergétique, tandis que les antagonistes CB1 exercent les effets opposéschez l’animal ainsi que chez l’homme. De surcroît, des corrélations ont été établies entre unesur régulation pathologique du SEC et les troubles métaboliques.Pourtant, plusieurs preuves indiquent que la relation entre le SEC et le métabolismeénergétique pourrait être plus complexe, probablement à cause de la multiplicité des sites oùle SEC peut agir à travers l’organisme. L’objectif général de ce travail de thèse fut dedisséquer les différents mécanismes par lesquels le SEC régule la prise alimentaire etl’équilibre énergétique. Le premier Chapitre de cette thèse détaille les mécanismes neuronauxmodulant l’équilibre énergétique chez les mammifères. Dans le Chapitre II, nous analysonsles différents types neuronaux cérébraux responsables de l’impact de la signalisation desrécepteurs CB1 sur la prise alimentaire stimulée. Dans le Chapitre III, nous proposons que leblocage pharmacologique des récepteurs CB1 exerce un effet anorexigène en agissant sur lesneurones périphériques sympathiques. Enfin, au cours du Chapitre IV nous disséquons le rôlepossible des récepteurs CB1 sur la balance énergétique.Les antagonistes CB1 ont été montrés comme n’exerçant que des effets anorexigènestransitoires, ceux-ci disparaissant après quelques semaines de traitement chez l’animal etquelques mois chez des patients obèses. De plus, les agonistes CB1 résultent en des effets biphasiques typiques. En effet, des doses faibles à modérées augmentent la prise alimentairechez l’animal tandis que de fortes doses diminuent les comportements d’ingestion. Lesrécepteurs CB1 sont exprimés sur différentes populations neuronales, dont les neuronesGABAergiques et glutamatergiques corticaux. Puisque l’activation des récepteurs CB1 induitgénéralement une réduction de la libération des neurotransmetteurs, il est probable que leseffets manifestement contradictoires des manipulations pharmacologiques soient dus à cetteexpression différentielle des récepteurs CB1. En combinant les approches pharmacologiqueset génétiques, nous avons montré que les récepteurs CB1 localisés au niveau du striatumventral sont associés à une action hypophagique via une inhibition de la transmissionGABAergique. Au contraire, les récepteurs CB1 cérébraux modulant les transmissionsexcitatrices sous-tendent l’effet orexigène bien connu des cannabinoïdes (Chapitre II).L’injection aiguë de l’antagoniste CB1, le SR141716 (Rimonabant) a un puissant effetanorexigène dans des conditions de prise alimentaire stimulée, telles que l’hyperphagieinduite par le jeûne. Néanmoins, la nature de cet effet (centrale versus périphérique) ainsi queles circuits neuronaux impliqués sont encore objets d’investigations. Dans le Chapitre III,nous mettons en évidence que l’hypophagie induite par le Rimonabant est indépendante d’unemodulation des transmissions GABAergique, glutamatergique corticale ou sérotoninergiquepar les récepteurs CB1 dans le cerveau, aussi bien que d’actions intrinsèques des récepteursCB1 au niveau de différents noyaux hypothalamiques. En fait, le Rimonabant inhibe la prisealimentaire stimulée en potentialisant directement l’activité du système périphériquesympathique.En ce qui concerne les fonctions métaboliques du SEC, il n’est actuellement pas encoreclairement établi si ce sont les récepteurs CB1 exprimés sur les neurones ou ceux localisés surles organes métaboliques périphériques qui jouent un rôle majeur dans le contrôle du stockageet de la consommation énergétique dans des conditions physiologiques ou pathologiques.Dans ce scenario, au Chapitre IV, nous montrons que les récepteurs CB1 neuronaux jouent unrôle clé dans le développement de l’obésité induite par la diète. Les souris mutantesconditionnelles caractérisées par une délétion des récepteurs CB1 au niveau des neurones duprosencéphale et des neurones périphériques sympathiques (connus pour contrôler la prisealimentaire et le poids corporel) mais pas au niveau des organes périphériques, exhibent unphénotype de type mince ainsi qu’une résistance à l’obésité induite par la diète. Ce phénotyperésulte d’une augmentation de l’oxydation des lipides et de la thermogenèse associée à unediminution de l’absorption énergétique due à une potentialisation de l’activité sympathique.Dans le Chapitre V, nous discutons de la signalisation neuronale des récepteurs CB1 commeune clé déterminante de l’action du SEC sur l’équilibre énergétique. Nous proposons que lesrécepteurs CB1 exercent un contrôle bimodal sur le comportement alimentaire et régulent lesdépenses énergétiques ainsi que l’activité du système nerveux sympathique. Les différencesentre le rôle des agonistes endogènes versus exogènes des récepteurs CB1, mais aussi entre lesagonistes versus antagonistes suggèrent que ces récepteurs pourraient bénéficier de propriétéspharmacologiques particulières à la signalisation du type cellulaire impliqué. / The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has recently emerged as an important modulator of foodintake and energy balance. Cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptor and endogenous ligands, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA), are largely present in the brain and inperipheral organs involved in the regulation of energy metabolism, such as liver, adiposetissue, skeletal muscle, pancreas and GI tract. Pharmacological CB1 stimulation generallyleads to an increase in energy intake and storage, whereas CB1 antagonists exert the oppositeeffects in both animals and humans. Furthermore, there is evidence of correlations betweenpathological ECS up-regulation and metabolic diseases.However, several pieces of evidence indicate that the relationship between the ECS andenergy intake and metabolism might be more complex than previously believed, likely due tothe different sites where the ECS could act in the body. The general aim of this Thesis workwas to dissect the different mechanisms through which the ECS regulates food intake andenergy balance. The first Chapter of this Thesis is an overview of the neuronal mechanismsregulating energy balance in mammals. In Chapter II, we analysed the brain neuronal typesresponsible of the impact of CB1 signalling on stimulated food intake. Chapter III, reveals thatthe pharmacological blockade of CB1 exerts anorectic effect acting at peripheral sympatheticneurons. Then (chapter IV) we dissected the possible impact of neuronal CB1 onto energybalance.CB1 antagonists were shown to exert only transient anorectic effects, which disappear afterfew weeks of treatment in animals and few months in obese patients. Furthermore, CB1agonists show typical biphasic effects, with low-to-moderate doses increasing food intake inanimals, and high doses decreasing ingestive behaviour. CB1 is expressed in many differentneuronal populations, including GABAergic and cortical glutamatergic neurons. As thegeneral effect of CB1 activation is a reduction of neurotransmitter release, it is possible thatthese apparently discrepant effects of pharmacological manipulations are due to thedifferential expression of the receptor. By using combined pharmacological and geneticapproaches we found that ventral striatal CB1 receptors are endowed with a hypophagicimpact through inhibition of GABAergic transmission. Conversely, brain CB1 receptorsmodulating excitatory transmission mediate the well-known orexigenic effects ofcannabinoids (Chapter II).The acute injection of CB1 antagonist SR141716 (Rimonabant) has an important anorecticeffect in condition of stimulated food intake, such as fasting-induced hyperphagia. However,the nature of this effect (central versus peripheral) as well as the neuronal circuits involved isstill matter of investigation. In Chapter III we show that rimonabant-induced hypophagia isindependent from CB1 modulation of GABAergic, cortical glutamatergic and serotoninergictransmission in the brain, as well as intrinsic actions of CB1 in different hypothalamic nuclei.In fact, rimonabant inhibits stimulated food intake by directly enhancing peripheralsympathetic actions.In relationship to metabolic functions of the ECS, it is not yet clear whether CB1 receptorsexpressed on neurons or on peripheral metabolic organs play a major role in the control ofenergy storage and consumption in both physiological and pathological conditions. In thisscenario, in Chapter IV, we show that neuronal CB1 receptors play a key role in thedevelopment of diet-induced obesity. Conditional mutant mice lacking CB1 expression inforebrain neurons and sympathetic peripheral neurons, known to control food intake and bodyweight, but not in peripheral organs, displayed a lean phenotype and resistance to diet-inducedobesity. This phenotype results from an increase in lipids oxidation and thermogenesis and adecrease in energy absorption due to an increase of the sympathetic tone.As discussed in the Chapter V, neuronal CB1 signalling is a key determinant of the ECSaction on energy balance, by exerting a bimodal control of feeding behaviour and byregulating energy expenditure and sympathetic nervous system activity. The differencesbetween the role of endogenous versus exogenous CB1 agonists, as well as between agonistsversus antagonists suggest that this receptor may have different pharmacological propertiesaccording to the cell type-specific signalling involved.