Elementary students continue to fall below proficiency levels in reading as measured by reading achievement tests (NAEP, 2019; Virginia Department of Education, 2021). In 2019, The Nation's Report Card disclosed that 37% of fourth-graders performed at or above the proficiency level on the National Assessment of Educational Progress reading assessment (NAEP, 2019). Data from these assessments show gaps exist between specific subgroups of students. These statistics present a national crisis in the reading skills of elementary students sitting in America's schools. The Wallace Foundation (2021) research indicates that principals influence student achievement data as measured by standardized tests, and the impact of an effective principal is almost as great as having an effective teacher. The purpose of this study was to identify the leadership practices of elementary turnaround principals whose schools' reading achievement scores increased under their leadership. A basic qualitative research design was used and the study was conducted in one suburban school division in central Virginia. Two principals and four teachers were interviewed using semi-structured interviews to identify the leadership practices the principals employed as the literacy leader in the school. Interviews were coded and analyzed to identify trends and themes shared by participants. This study's findings include four themes emerging from the principals' interviews and three themes emerging from the teachers' interviews. One major finding from 100% of participants included the use of Professional Learning Communities (PLC) to help build the professional knowledge of the teachers in understanding how to teach reading. An implication of this finding states that school leaders could develop the master schedule with established times for PLC meetings to occur during the school day. An additional finding from 100% of the participants included the principal's knowledge of the reading process as it allowed the principals to have constructive conversations with teachers around their reading instruction. An implication of this finding includes school leaders considering building their knowledge of the reading process by attending conferences or reading professional books. The data from this research study will contribute to the research of prioritizing principals' leadership actions for turnaround elementary schools. / Doctor of Education / Elementary students continue to read below proficiency levels. Student achievement data from standardized reading tests show the students sitting in America's schools are not meeting basic reading proficiency levels (NAEP, 2019; Virginia Department of Education, 2021); however, principals play a key role in their students' reading achievement levels in their schools. Research by The Wallace Foundation (2021) found "the effectiveness of the principal of the school is more important than the effectiveness of a single teacher" (p. xiv). Principals can have a positive impact on students' achievement in school. This research study investigated the leadership practices used by elementary principals to turn around their schools' reading achievement data. The study was designed to investigate the perceptions of principals and teachers on the leadership practices impacting the improvement of reading achievement scores in the school. A qualitative research design with semi-structured interviews was used to gather the perceptions of the principals and teachers in one suburban school division in Virginia. These data were collected and analyzed resulting in 10 findings and 10 implications. One finding in the Instructional Practices theme indicated that implementing professional learning communities helped build principals' and teachers' professional knowledge in teaching reading. An implication of this finding could be for school divisions to provide professional learning to teachers and administrators regarding how to implement professional learning communities. The findings from the research provide principals and school division leaders with a myriad of implications that could be used to change the trajectory of reading achievement scores in schools. One limitation of the study was the sample size of participants. A suggestion for future research would be to increase the sample size of the participants in the study.

English Learner (ELs) are the fastest growing student population in the United States. With this increase of ELs, come many challenges at the federal, state, and local level. Research shows that teachers and administrators are ill-equipped to meet the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students. English learners face inequities in today's school- lack of qualified and trained teachers and administrators, ineffective language support programs, persistent achievement gaps compared to their non-EL peers, lack of access to advanced courses as well as institutional marginalization, segregation and racism. School administrators are key in ensuring success for all students, particularly for ELs. Administrators who are knowledgeable about issues of equity and marginalization promote social justice in their schools and increase student achievement for marginalized student populations including ELs. The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify principals' and assistant principals' self-reported levels of preparedness to assist instructional staff who work with English Learners in the school setting. The study was conducted in two school divisions in Virginia. This study used a survey of 25 Likert-scale statements. The survey used was adapted and modified from the Hiatt and Fairbairn (2018) study. This study used quantitative analyses techniques to analyze the data, to include descriptive statistics, and comparative analysis using ANOVA. This study yielded nine findings and seven implications. One of the major finding was that there was no difference between principals' and assistant principals' self-reported levels of preparedness based on the percentage of ELs in their schools. One major implication is that school districts ought to provide principals and assistant principals the necessary professional development to equip them to serve ELs as an ever-growing and changing student population. / Doctor of Education / Schools across the United States have experienced an increase of English Learner (ELs) students. Many schools today struggle to meet the needs of ELs. The challenges ELs face as well as the leadership traits and skills necessary for their success were identified in the literature. The purpose of this quantitative study was to identify principal and assistant principal self-reported levels of preparedness to assist instructional staff working with ELs in the school setting. Data were collected using quantitative methodologies. Principals and assistant principals from two school divisions in Virginia were the participants in this study. The study yielded nine findings and seven implications for practice. A suggestion for future study would be conduct the study across the Commonwealth of Virginia in order to gain a better understanding of the self-reported levels of preparedness for principals and assistant principals and to develop a state-wide comprehensive professional development plan to address their needs.

Principals of Title I schools have a responsibility to ensure that all students achieve so that they may graduate on time and are career and college ready (Virginia Department of Education [VDOE], 2022b). This research focused on the principals' instructional leadership practices in elementary and middle Title I schools impacting student achievement. The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia. The research question was, what are the principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia as reported by principals, assistant principals, instructional coaches, and teachers? A demographic survey of eight teachers was completed, and one-on-one interviews were conducted with two principals, one assistant principal, and two instructional coaches, and focus interviews held with eight teachers. Data on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools in one school division in Virginia were analyzed. Deductive coding was used for this purpose to determine common themes from the data. Eight major findings were discovered including seven principal instructional leadership practices and the most impactful principal instructional leadership practices. Six of the findings pertain to elementary and middle Title I schools, and two of the findings were specific to elementary Title I schools. The research could provide current and future practitioners in elementary and middle Title I schools and school divisions with principal instructional leadership practices to help improve overall student achievement and close achievement gaps amongst student groups. Practitioners can utilize the study to assist with the professional development (PD) of Title I school principals and for developing principal preparation programs. Researchers might use the study for literature research-based strategies on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools. Whether students are learning face-to-face, blended, or virtual, these practices can be utilized by leaders of Title I schools to ensure that students achieve. / Doctor of Education / Principals of Title I schools have a responsibility to ensure that all students achieve so that they may graduate on time and are career and college ready. This research focused on the principals' instructional leadership practices impacting student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools. The research question was, what are the principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia as reported by principals, assistant principals, instructional coaches, and teachers? A demographic survey of eight teachers was completed, and one-on-one interviews were conducted with two principals, one assistant principal, and two instructional coaches, and focus interviews held with eight teachers. The research might benefit current and future practitioners in elementary and middle Title I schools and school divisions by providing principal instructional leadership practices to help improve overall student achievement and close achievement gaps amongst student groups. Practitioners can utilize the study to help with PD of principals or for developing principal preparation programs. This study might provide researchers with literature research-based strategies on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools.

Inquiry-based science education has been a topic of extensive study and discussion. In 2018, the National Science Teaching Association revised their recommendations about inquiry-based teaching, endorsing three-dimensional learning as a more comprehensive approach for students in science classes. This model, known as three-dimensional teaching and learning (3DT), integrates three key dimensions: 1) science and engineering practices, 2) cross-cutting concepts, and 3) disciplinary core ideas. Accordingly, this study investigated the feasibility of developing an observation protocol based on the science and engineering practice "Planning and Carrying Out Investigations." Participants included both science teachers and instructional leaders. Two research questions guided this investigation: (1) Is it feasible to utilize the Science and Engineering Practices as a framework for the development of an observation protocol intended for use by instructional leaders in secondary science classrooms? (2) How do instructional leaders and science teachers assess a science lesson differently, and what are the implications of these potential similarities or differences on the feasibility of the observation protocol outlined in Research Question 1? Data was collected over the course of three sequential phases: 1) soliciting feedback from expert reviewers, 2) conducting a focus group with secondary school science teachers and secondary school administrators, and 3) administering an online pilot study of secondary science teachers and secondary school administrators from Virginia, who tested the observation protocol using video recordings of science lessons. The findings that emerged from this investigation support the idea of using a Science and Engineering Practices-based observation protocol like the one tested in this study. Additionally, the data suggest potential avenues for future research, such as the degree to which administrators would benefit from having subject-specific observation forms. / Doctor of Philosophy / Inquiry-based science education has been a topic of extensive study and discussion. In 2018, the National Science Teaching Association revised their recommendations about inquiry-based teaching, endorsing three-dimensional learning as a more comprehensive approach for students in science classes. This model, known as three-dimensional teaching and learning (3DT), integrates three key dimensions: 1) science and engineering practices, 2) cross-cutting concepts, and 3) disciplinary core ideas. Accordingly, this study investigated the feasibility of developing an observation protocol based on the science and engineering practice "Planning and Carrying Out Investigations." Participants included both science teachers and instructional leaders. Two research questions guided this investigation: (1) Is it feasible to utilize the Science and Engineering Practices as a framework for the development of an observation protocol intended for use by instructional leaders in secondary science classrooms? (2) How do instructional leaders and science teachers assess a science lesson differently, and what are the implications of these potential similarities or differences on the feasibility of the observation protocol outlined in Research Question 1? Data was collected from expert reviewers, secondary school science teachers, and secondary school administrators in Virginia, and involved a focus group as well as rating video recordings of science lessons. Results suggest that using tools based on ideas that are specific to science could be helpful to both school administrators and teachers. There are many potential follow-up research studies that can be done in the future based on the results of this study.

Doctor of Education / Department of Educational Leadership / Teresa N. Miller / The purpose of this study was to research, develop, and validate a handbook of effective strategies that an instructional leader can implement and that are more likely to bring about and sustain a successful change process. Implementation Strategies for Effective Change: A Handbook for Instructional Leaders was developed using the research and development methodology as recommended by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1989, 1996) and Dick and Carey (1985) through a seven-step development cycle. The review of literature and proof of concept questionnaire provided information for developing the outline and initial prototype. Experts in the field served as preliminary field evaluators using a Likert scale and open-ended questions to provide feedback. Revisions were made based on their feedback. The main field test was conducted with potential users of the guide. Final revisions were based on main field test evaluators’ feedback. The conclusions of the study were: (1) the role of the principal has changed from that of a manager to an instructional leader who possesses a broad base of pedagogical and content knowledge and who understands how to lead a staff through a complicated change process; (2) a handbook that provides guidance and support for principals leading a change process focused on the improvement of instruction to raise student achievement would be a useful resource; (3) development of a comprehensive handbook or guide that blends theory, research, and practice for instructional leaders would be a beneficial resource; (4) the study produced a comprehensive guide to assist instructional leaders who are leading a change process focused on the improvement of instruction to raise student achievement, and (5) the strategies included in the handbook allow principals to adjust and adapt according to their schools’ unique situation and needs. The framework included in the comprehensive handbook provides strategies, tips, and suggestions for (1) developing leadership skills, (2) establishing the organizational structure within the school community, (3) building teachers’ knowledge base, and (4) fostering an understanding of the change process. Throughout the handbook, an emphasis is placed on the improvement of instruction to achieve high academic success for all students.

The specific problem this research studied is the relationship between principal instructional leadership behaviors and student achievement in Nigeria. Eight of the often cited principal instructional leadership behaviors were selected for study. They are: set goals; set expectation; provide resources, human/material; manage/coordinate curriculum and instruction; establish school climate; promote staff professional development; and monitor student progress. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the eight selected principal instructional leadership behaviors and student achievement in Nigeria. Using the stratified random sampling technique, a sample of 400 teachers, and 40 principals was selected from 40 secondary schools in Edo State. Two questionnaires were developed to gather data for the study. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and pictorial presentation. The descriptive demographic variables gender, age, experience, and education, were used to describe the data gathered. The independent and dependent variables were subjected to inferential statistics using the Pearson product – moment correlation coefficient technique. Eight null hypotheses were tested to determine the statistically significant relationship between the eight independent variables and the dependent variable. The level of significance chosen was .05. The primary findings indicated that there are no statistically significant relationship between any of the eight independent variables and the dependent variable. Therefore, it could be concluded that there are other variables that are related to student achievement in Nigeria, though the eight independent variables could enhance it. Student intrinsic motivation, discriminating synthesis of old and new values, and a return to the Nigerian tradition are variables offered as those that are related to student achievement in Nigeria. Of all these variables, student intrinsic motivation seems to be the recurring variable that is most related to it. Nine main recommendations were made to the Nigerian students, scholars, school system, and society.

School systems nationwide confront declines in the number of principal applicants while facing increasing student accountability concerns. The idiosyncrasies of adolescent development and the social nature of the educational environment reflect the declines in applicants and impact student accountability. Using a three-tiered case study, the present research inquiry identified perspectives of superintendents, middle school principals, and middle school teachers regarding Baldrige-based practices in the four Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award-winning school districts in the United States. This study's data illuminated how a non-prescriptive framework such as the Baldrige National Quality Program (BNQP) combined with Baldrige Education Criteria for Performance Excellence (BECPE) assessment instrument, were utilized by the superintendents and middle school principals in the award-winning schools to address the issues of both instructional leadership and student achievement. Perspectives from targeted superintendents, middle school (grades 6-8) principals, and middle school teachers regarding Baldrige-based practices as they relate to instructional leadership in middle level education were investigated. Research participants from Chugach School District in Anchorage, Alaska; Pearl River School District in Pearl River, New York; Community Consolidated School District 15 in Palatine, Illinois; and Jenks Public Schools in Jenks, Oklahoma discussed the adoption, implementation, and maintenance of the Baldrige National Quality Program, combined with the ongoing utilization of BECPE, in their middle schools. Respondents disclosed instructional leadership beliefs and practices utilized within their school and/or district. Utilizing information from the three interview protocols created for superintendents, middle school principals, and middle school teachers in the targeted districts, an analysis of themes emerged from the transcribed interviews and interview correspondences, providing insight about the gaps in research literature pertaining to the application of Baldrige-based practices in middle level education. These gaps substantiated the need for continued research that examines the role of instructional leadership in creating Baldrige environments in the middle school arena. Overall, the qualitative results of this exploratory study promoted understanding and informed efforts to build instructional leadership in other middle level educational institutions across the nation.

Focusing on relations between principals, other School Management Team (SMT) members and teachers, this study examines the potential of their active collaboration around instructional matters to enhance the quality of teaching and student achievement. The analysis is grounded in the theory of instructional leadership- and the conceptual framework locates instructional leadership within the context of the instructional core and the role of the school principal and SMT exercise in the learning context. The main question that drove this research was: How does the work of the school principal influence classroom practice of teachers? My study investigated the following three sub questions: i)Does leadership contribute to the ultimate success of schools?; ii) What are the three successful schools doing? and iii)How do the principals of these schools recognise, implement and bring about change that contributes to their success? The main aims were to examine how the primary school principal leads and influences classroom practice to encourage improved academic performance and how the principal and other senior management team members work together to communicate with, monitor and evaluate teachers. In addition, it investigated how teachers perceive and interpret the actions of the school leadership around their own classroom practice. It looked into the particular behaviours, relationships and interactions between the principals and SMT members and educators that influenced or hampered the delivery of quality education in the classroom. The sample comprised of three case studies of primary schools in Gauteng, South Africa. The methodology used was structured interviews of the principals and senior management members, focus group interviews with teachers, observations and documentary evidence. Data was collected, coded and analysed under themes that emerged from examining the data and literature around instructional leadership. The research objective was to understand the role that primary school principals play in instructional leadership and how instructional leadership can lead to effective teaching and learning. My goals were to characterize “best practice” for instructional iii leadership; and to identify strategies used by the school principals that show how their work influences classroom practice. The study found that effective instructional leadership is central to enhancing teaching and learning in a primary school to improve student academic outcomes and that the instructional leadership behaviours of school principals were significantly related to teacher's commitment, professional involvement and innovativeness and to the overall improvement of student results. This study demonstrated that instructional leadership success is not based on a one size fit all model for instructional enactment of success.

There are different criteria that affect active leadership styles that enhance the role of a principal as an Instructional Leadership. However, many principals lack such criteria where a strong principal considered as an Instructional Leadership. To become Instructional Leaders, principals must transform their practices from managerial to instructional. They need to exercise their leadership by exhibiting the leadership styles in their role and character, or their role will merely perform administrative duties that are akin to an administrative position. Furthermore, a school principal as a leader should play an important role in enhancing teachers' satisfaction. This study investigated the moderating effect of four leadership styles Directive, Supportive, Participative, and Achievement-oriented (D, S, P, A) on Instructional Leadership and teachers' outcomes (job satisfaction, job expectancies and acceptance of leader). The study used mixed methods, qualitative survey and quantitative focus group to develop a model based upon empirical data. The findings are based on a survey of 536 participants including teachers, principals and senior chiefs at various levels of primary, elementary and secondary schools across the Kingdom of Bahrain. The statistical and thematic analysis of the data shows that there is a direct and positive relationship between Instructional Leaderships and teacher's outcomes when moderated by the four leadership styles. The contribution of this study is the empirically tested relationships between Path Goal Theory and Instructional Leadership which shows that there are statistically significant relationships between D, S, P, A and the relationship between Instructional Leadership and the teacher's job satisfaction, job expectancy and acceptance of leader. Focus group finding shows that Leadership styles D, S, P, A transforms Instructional Leadership into a form that enhances the leadership role in Kingdom of Bahrain that Transactional Leadership influences Job expectancy, whilst Referent Power influences acceptance of leaders.

The principal’s roles as manager and instructional leader are complementary terms for explaining what s/he does daily in the school to direct the mission towards its fulfilment. However, these roles are often in tension, especially in the context of school self-management. This scenario has led to an overemphasis on routine (administrative) tasks by school managers, leaving them over-worked and with little time to devote their efforts to the core technology of schooling, the most critical and essential responsibility of school management namely, instructional leadership. Employing a qualitative case study approach, this report explored the day-to-day instructional tasks of leaders in two primary schools in the Johannesburg East District in the Gauteng Province. It is argued, in the study, that it is necessary for school principals to distribute, collaborate and involve other SMT members in executing their instructional leadership responsibilities to enhance quality delivery of C2005. The deputy principal and school level HoDs, it is argued, should be the immediate arbiters of the tension between the principal’s functions as manager and instructional leader. They should be enabled and encouraged to create a balance between meeting the school’s educative goals and sharing in the instructional duties of principals. The lack of time and commitment to instructional improvement on the part of principals seriously hampers and compromises their effectiveness, teaching and learning, and student achievement. Consistent with the Department of Education’s policy framework on instructional leadership practices in schools (DoE, 2000), the findings in this study reveal that the effective implementation and reaping the benefits of Curriculum 2005 (C2005) requires collaborative practices among the SMT members (the principal, deputy principal and the heads of departments). This study also found that instructional improvement should be regarded as core to everybody’s job and not as a specialised function for an individual, the principal. This is consistent with Alvarado (in Elmore & Burney, 1997), who asserts that anyone with staff responsibility has the duty to support others directly involved in staff development. The deputy principal, the heads of department and subject heads in primary schools as formal leaders, all have an instructional responsibility to assist the principal in meeting the school’s instructional goals.