Safety risk evaluation is critical in autonomous vehicle applications. This research aims to develop, implement, and validate new safety monitoring methods for navigation in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-denied environments. The methods quantify uncertainty in sensors and algorithms that exploit the complementary properties of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and inertial measuring units (IMU). This dissertation describes the following four contributions. First, we focus on sensor augmentation for landmark-based localization. We develop new IMU/LiDAR integration methods that guarantee a bound on the integrity risk, which is the probability that the navigation error exceeds predefined acceptability limits. IMU data improves LiDAR position and orientation (pose) prediction and LiDAR limits the IMU error drift over time. In addition, LiDAR return-light intensity measurements improve landmarks recognition. As compared to using the sensors individually, tightly-coupled IMU/LiDAR not only increases pose estimation accuracy but also reduces the risk of incorrectly associating perceived features with mapped landmarks. Second, we consider algorithm improvements. We derive and analyze a new data association method that provides a tight bound on the risk of incorrect association for LiDAR feature-based localization. The new data association criterion uses projections of the extended Kalman filter's (EKF) innovation vector rather than more conventional innovation vector norms. This method decreases the integrity risk by improving our ability to predict the risk of incorrect association. Third, we depart from landmark-based approaches. We develop a spherical grid-based localization method that leverages quantization theory to bound navigation uncertainty. This method is integrated with an iterative EKF to establish an analytical bound on the vehicle's pose estimation error. Unlike landmark-based localization which requires feature extraction and data association, this method uses the entire LiDAR point cloud and is robust to extraction and association failures. Fourth, to validate these methods, we designed and built two testbeds for indoor and outdoor experiments. The indoor testbed includes a sensor platform installed on a rover moving on a figure-eight track in a controlled lab environment. The repeated figure-eight trajectory provides empirical pose estimation error distributions that can directly be compared with analytical error bounds. The outdoor testbed required another set of navigation sensors for reference truth trajectory generation. Sensors were mounted on a car to validate our algorithms in a realistic automotive driving environment. / Doctor of Philosophy / Advances in computing and sensing technologies have enabled large scale demonstrations of autonomous vehicle operations including pilot programs for self-driving cars on public roads. However, a key question that has yet to be answered is about how safe these vehicles really are. "Autonomously" driving millions of miles (with a trained safety driver taking over control to prevent potential collisions) is insufficient to prove fatality rates matching human performance, i.e., lower than 1 per 100,000,000 miles driven. The safety of an autonomous vehicle depends on the safety of its individual subsystems, components, connected infrastructure, etc. In this research, we evaluate the safety of the navigation subsystem which uses sensor information to determine the vehicle's location and orientation. We focus on light detection and ranging (LiDAR)and inertial measuring units (IMU). A LiDAR provides a point cloud representation of the environment by measuring distances to surrounding objects using beams of infrared light (laser beams) sent at regular angular intervals. An IMU measures the acceleration and angular velocity of the vehicle. We assume that a map of the environment is available. In the first part of this research, we extract recognizable objects from the LiDAR point cloud and match them with those in the map: this process helps estimate the vehicle's position and orientation. We identify the process' limitations that include incorrectly matching sensed and mapped landmarks. We develop new methods to quantify their impacts on localization errors, which we then reduce by incorporating additional IMU data. In the second part of this dissertation, we design and evaluate a new approach specifically aimed at provably increasing confidence in landmark matching, thereby improving vehicle navigation safety. Third, instead of isolating individual landmarks, we use the LiDAR point cloud as a whole and match it directly with the map. The challenge with this approach was in efficiently and accurately quantifying the confidence that can be placed in the vehicle's navigation solution. We tested these navigation methods using experimental data collected in a controlled lab environment and in a real-world scenario.

Digitaliseringens framfart i banksektorn och dess påverkan på teknologin har medfört att allt fler bankärenden hanteras digitalt via internettjänster. Till följd av digitala banktjänster har en ny dörr öppnats för bedragare. Bedrägerier och ID-kapningar har medfört att bankkunder blir skeptiska gentemot digitala banktjänster eftersom kunder upplever hot mot deras integritet. Denna studies ambition är att studera förtroende, servicekvalitet och teknologisacceptans, som tidigare framhävts som betydande variabler i påverkan på integritetsrisken. Till skillnad från tidigare forskning har denna studie byggt upp en forskningsmodell som bygger på förtroende, servicekvalitet och teknologiacceptans för att undersöka integritetsrisken i samband med digitala banktjänster. Utifrån forskningsmodellen har tre hypoteser utformats för att vidareutveckla kunskapen inom forskningsområdet. En positivistisk forskningsfilosofi och en deduktiv forskningsansats präglar denna studie, där en kvantitativ forskningsansats i form av internetenkäter valdes för att samla in empiriska data. Studiens resultat, baserat på 101 respondenter, påvisar att förtroende och teknologiacceptans har en påverkan på integritetsrisken, dock visar resultatet att servicekvalitet inte har någon påverkan på integritetsrisken. / Rapid development in technology due to digitalization has altered a myriad of people’s lives, as it provides the customers an opportunity to perform banking activities online. As a result of digital transition from traditional banking to online banking, fraud has occurred more frequently. Owing to this, banking customers have become skeptical about online banking and are more aware of its impact on their integrity. The purpose of this study is to examine trust, service quality and technology-acceptance in regard to the perceived integrity risk. Contrary to previous research, this study has constructed a research model built on trust, service quality and technology-acceptance, factors that have been perceived as having an impact on the integrity risk in conjunction with online banking. Utilizing the research model, three hypotheses have been created to further explore the research area. A positivistic research philosophy and a deductive research approach was implemented in this study. Furthermore, a quantitative research method in the form of questionnaires was used to gather and collect empirical data. The results, based on 101 respondents, show that trust and technology-acceptance have an impact on the integrity risk, however it also shows that service quality does not have an impact on the integrity risk.

Bakgrund och problemformulering: Skiftet till digitala banktjänster innebär ett annat arbetssätt att bibehålla förtroendet hos sina kunder då servicen blir mindre personlig. Förtroende och service är en viktig del hos kunderna samtidigt som det ställs nya krav gällande bekvämlighet och automatiserade självtjänster. Mot denna bakgrund är möjliga problem som kan uppstå en bristande säkerhet samt riskerna kring integriteten.   Syftet: Studiens syfte är att undersöka om det finns ett samband mellan kundernas förtroende och bankernas digitala banktjänster. Utöver detta vill forskarna få en förståelse för bankkunders förtroende för sin digitala bank.   Metod: Undersökningen bygger på kvantitativ metod i form av en enkätundersökning som sedan används för att genomföra en korrelationsanalys och regressionsanalys.  Teoretisk referensram: Technology Acceptance Model, Social Exchange Theory, Perceived Risk och Digitala Tillitsmodellen.  Empiri: Empirin har fyra olika fokusområden: kontrollfrågor, förtroende, digitala banktjänster samt risk och säkerhet. Dessa sammanställs och testas i en korrelationsanalys och regressionsanalys för att undersöka samband och testa hypoteser.   Slutsats: Resultatet visar att det föreligger ett positivt samband mellan digitala banktjänsters användbarhet och förtroende för digitala banktjänster samt att upplevd integritetsrisk har ett negativt samband med förtroendet. Trots att det kan finnas ett samband mellan digitala banktjänsternas användarvänlighet och förtroende finns inte tillräckligt med stöd för att bevisa detta. / Background and problem formulation: The shift to digital banking services means a different way of working to maintain the trust of its customers, this as the service has become less personal. Trust and service are valued highly for the customers, while new demands are being made regarding convenience and automated self-service. Against this background, possible problems that may arise are a lack of security and the risks surrounding integrity.  Purpose: The purpose of the study is to investigate whether there is a relationship between customers' trust and the banks' digital banking services. In addition to this, the researchers want to gain an understanding of bank customers' trust in their digital bank.  Method: The survey is based on a quantitative method in the form of a questionnaire which is then used to carry out a correlation and regression analysis.  Framework: Technology Acceptance Model, Social Exchange Theory, Perceived Risk and Digital Trust Model.  Empiricism: The empiricism has four different focus areas: control questions, trust, digital banking services and lastly risk as well as security. These are compiled and tested in a correlation and regression analysis to examine relationships by testing hypotheses.  Conclusions: The findings show that there is a positive relationship between the usability of digital banking services and trust in digital banking services, and that perceived integrity risk has a negative relationship with trust. Although there may be a link between the ease of use of digital banking services and trust, there is not enough support to prove this.