A materially non-linear layered beam super element is developed for the analysis of RC beams and columns strengthened by externally bonded steel/FRP plates. The elasto-plastic behavior of RC member is incorporated by its internally generated or externally supplied moment-curvature diagram. The steel plate is assumed to be elasto-plastic and the FRP laminate is assumed to behave linearly elastic up to rupture. The thin epoxy layer between the RC member and the externally bonded lamina is simulated by a special interface element which allows for the changing failure modes from steel plate yielding/FRP plate rupture to separation of the bonded plates as a result of bond failure in the epoxy layer. An empirical failure criterion based on test results is used for the epoxy material of the interface. The most critical aspect of such applications in real life frame structures is the anchorage conditions at the member ends and junctions. This has direct influence on the success and the effectiveness of the application. Therefore, a special corner piece anchorage element is also considered in the formulation of the joint super element, which establishes the fixity and continuity conditions at the member ends and the joints.

This project was sponsored by two companies interested in promoting the use of pultruded glass fibre/polyester composites in the construction of freight containers. Thus, the research was to understand and quantify the damage mechanisms caused by low velocity impact on the composite system and to produce a finite element impact model to further the understanding of these events.

[pt] Em reservatórios complexos com descontinuidades geológicas como falhas, os riscos na produção de petróleo e gás pelos métodos de injeção frequentemente utilizados são maiores. Um dos fenômenos que pode acarretar graves problemas de perda de produção e acidentes ambientais é a reativação de falhas geológicas. Isto ocorre devido às variações de tensões induzidas na formação, as quais podem ser suficientemente altas para reativar as falhas e modificar significativamente o comportamento do reservatório, gerando uma das situações mais críticas na indústria de petróleo. Nessa dissertação investiga-se através do método dos elementos finitos o fenômeno de reativação de falhas com base em modelos de representação explícita da falha através de elementos de interface. Adota-se ainda para efeitos de comparação uma modelagem da falha por meio de uma zona de falha através do conceito de contínuo equivalente. Uma metodologia com base em uma análise poro-elastoplástica desacoplada que permite estimar as pressões limite para a reativação durante a produção em reservatórios de petróleo de uma maneira versátil e eficiente foi empregada nas situações investigadas através do simulador Abaqus. Para tal, foram implementadas uma série de rotinas para incorporar ao programa Abaqus novos elementos de interface, governados pelo modelo constitutivo de Mohr-Coulomb. A metodologia apresentada foi avaliada e verificada através da simulação de um modelo sintético com falha normal comparando os resultados com uma solução analítica simplificada e com os resultados obtidos com o simulador de elementos finitos AEEPECD (Costa, 1984). São apresentados alguns exemplos de aplicação representando a falha com elementos de interface e como um contínuo equivalente. Os resultados obtidos nas análises demonstram a aplicabilidade da metodologia a problemas de campos reais. / [en] In complex reservoirs with geological discontinuities, such as faults, the risk in the production of oil and gas are increase by the injection methods frequently used. The injection and depletion processes induce stress variations in the formation. These can be high enough to reactivate faults and significantly modify the behavior of the reservoir, bringing on one of the most critical situations in the oil industry. In this context, this dissertation investigates the phenomenon of fault reactivation by employing the finite element method based on an explicit representation of the fault with interface elements. In addition, a fault zone model based on an equivalent continuum approach is adopted for comparison. The pressure limits during production of oil reservoirs considering fault reactivation are determined from pore-elastoplastic uncoupled analyses with the software Abaqus. With this purpouse, interfaces elements with Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model were implemented through user subroutine in Abaqus to represent, in an approximate way, the fault behavior. In addition, other tools were developed to facilitate the generation of the models to be analyzed. The presented methodology was evaluated and verified through the simulation of a synthetic model with a normal fault. The results were compared with a simplified analytical approach and the results obtained by finite element simulator AEEPECD (Costa, 1984). Some examples of applications are presented, in which faults are represented using interface elements and alternatively, through an equivalent continuum approach. The analysis results demonstrate the applicability of the methodology to real fields.

[pt] A alvenaria é um material largamente utilizado, e é fundamental a realização de pesquisas para caracterizar seu desempenho e elevar a sua utilização a um aspecto mais estrutural, não apenas funcional (separação de ambientes). Neste trabalho é apresentada uma modelagem em elementos finitos para estruturas de alvenaria. Utilizando um modelo numérico sofisticado com base no Método dos Elementos Finitos, associado a um modelo constitutivo adequado, busca- se uma representação mais real do comportamento destas estruturas. A modelagem da alvenaria consiste na representação do comportamento dos tijolos e da argamassa, assim como da interação entre eles. Elementos de interface apresentam- se como uma escolha natural para a descontinuidade física, intrínseca ao problema. Adicionalmente, eles podem representar fissuras provenientes tanto do modo I quanto do modo II, as quais representam aberturas potenciais e deslizamentos no plano, respectivamente. Para isso é necessário acoplá-los a modelos constitutivos que detectem os diversos modos de ruptura do sistema. Também são necessárias avançadas estratégias de solução que permitam seguir a formação de deformações localizadas. Como estratégias empregadas pode-se citar o controle de deslocamentos direto, controle de deslocamento relativo e controle de comprimento de arco. Neste trabalho, um modelo elasto-plástico baseado no critério de escoamento de Mohr-Coulomb foi escolhido para a representação da interface de argamassa. Exemplos foram analisados comparativamente com resultados numéricos e experimentais. / [en] Since masonry is a widely employed material, it is fundamental to better characterize its structural performance and extend its use beyond functional applications (separation of environments). In this work a finite element model for masonry structures is presented. By using a sophisticated numerical tool based on the finite element method, associated to suitable constitutive models, the behavior of these structures is represented in a more realistic way. Masonry modeling consists in representing the behavior of bricks and mortar, as well as the interaction between them. Interface elements present themselves as a natural choice for representation of the intrinsic physical discontinuities of the problem. Additionally, they can represent cracks arising from either mode I or mode II fracture, which represent potential opening and sliding planes, respectively. This requires the coupling of interface elements with constitutive models which embrace several system failure modes. In this work, an elasto-plastic model based on the Mohr- Coulomb yield criteria was chosen for the representation of the mortar interface. The brittle response of these structures often leads to localized failure modes. Advanced strategies of solution that allow us to follow the formation of localized strains are employed, namely displacement control, relative displacement control and the arc-length method. Application of this numerical tool to some numerical examples is shown and compared to experimental results. / [es] El hormigón es un material largamente utilizado por lo que es fundamental la realización de investigaciones para caracterizar su desempeño y extender su uso a un aspecto más extructural y no apenas funcional (separación de ambientes). En este trabajo se presenta un modelo de elementos finitos para extructuras de hormigón. Utilizando un modelo numérico sofisticado con base en el Método de los Elementos Finitos, asociado a un modelo constitutivo adequado, se busca una representación más real del comportamiento de estas extructuras. El modelo representa el comportamiento de los ladrillos y de la argamasa, así como de la interacción entre ellos. Elementos de la interface se presentan como una selección natural para la discontinuidad física, intrínseca al problema. Adicionalmente, se pueden representar fisuras provenientes tanto del modo ? como del modo ??, las cuales representan aberturas potenciales y deslizamentos en el plano, respectivamente. Para ello es necesario acoplarlos a modelos constitutivos que detectan los diversos modos de ruptura del sistema. Tembién son necesarias estrategias de solución avanzadas que permitan seguir la formación de deformaciones localizadas. Como estrategias empleadas se pueden citar: el control de deslocamentos, control de deslocamento relativo y control del largo del arco. En este trabajo se eligió un modelo elasto-plástico basado en el criterio de Mohr-Coulomb para la representación de la interface de argamasa. A modo de comparación se analizaron varios ejemplos con resultados numéricos y experimentales.

Placement and compaction of the backfill behind an earth retaining wall may induce a vertical shear force at the soil-to-wall interface. This vertical shear force, or downdrag, is beneficial for the stability of the structure. A significant reduction in construction costs may result if the downdrag is accounted for during design. This potential reduction in costs is particularly interesting in the case of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers lock walls. A simplified procedure is available in the literature for estimating the downdrag force developed at the wall-backfill interface during backfilling of a retaining wall. However, finite element analyses of typical U.S. Army Corps of Engineers lock walls have shown that the magnitude of the downdrag force may decrease during operation of the lock with a rise in the water table in the backfill. They have also shown that pre- and post-construction stress paths followed by interface elements often involve simultaneous changes in shear and normal stresses and unloading-reloading. The hyperbolic formulation for interfaces (Clough and Duncan 1971) is accurate for modeling the interface response in the primary loading stage under constant normal stress. However, it has not been extended to model simultaneous changes in shear and normal stresses or unloading-reloading of the interface. The purpose of this research was to develop an interface model capable of giving accurate predictions of the interface response under field loading conditions, and to implement this model in a finite element program. In order to develop the necessary experimental data, a series of tests were performed on interfaces between concrete and two different types of sand. The tests included initial loading, staged shear, unloading-reloading, and shearing along complex stress paths. An extended hyperbolic model for interfaces was developed based on the results of the tests. The model is based on Clough and Duncan (1971) hyperbolic formulation, which has been extended to model the interface response to a variety of stress paths. Comparisons between model calculations and tests results showed that the model provides accurate estimates of the response of interfaces along complex stress paths. The extended hyperbolic model was implemented in the finite element program SOILSTRUCT-ALPHA, used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for analyses of lock walls. A pilot-scale test was performed in the Instrumented Retaining Wall (IRW) at Virginia Tech that simulated construction and operation of a lock wall. SOILSTRUCT-ALPHA analyses of the IRW provided accurate estimates of the downdrag magnitude throughout inundation of the backfill. It is concluded that the extended hyperbolic model as implemented in SOILSTRUCT-ALPHA is adequate for routine analyses of lock walls. / Ph. D.

[pt] Reservatórios de petróleo e gás estruturalmente compartimentados por falhas geológicas selantes são encontrados em diversas regiões do mundo. Durante a fase de explotação, a integridade do selo destas falhas pode ser comprometida pelas deformações decorrentes dos processos de depleção e/ou injeção de fluidos. Estas deformações, em conjunto com as propriedades físicas e geométricas das rochas e falhas presentes, podem alterar significativamente o estado de tensões do maciço rochoso fazendo com que uma falha reative e se torne hidraulicamente condutora. A esse fenômeno estão associados riscos de exsudação, perda de integridade de poços e outros potencias problemas geomecânicos. Na literatura, diversas modelagens numéricas têm sido utilizadas a fim de caracterizar e prever os fenômenos de reativação e/ou abertura de falhas geológicas. A maior parte de estas abordagens faz uso de modelos bidimensionais considerando seções críticas na hipótese de estado plano de deformação. Essas simplificações são adotadas a fim de evitar a complexidade geométrica e o alto custo computacional de uma modelagem tridimensional. No entanto, a configuração tridimensional dos planos de falha pode induzir a reativação em direção a zonas mais críticas do que aquelas contidas numa única seção. Neste trabalho apresenta-se uma metodologia para análise de reativação de falhas geológicas e discute-se a importância do uso dos modelos 3D na previsão do comportamento geomecânico de reservatórios compartimentados por falhas geológicas. São apresentados 3 modelos diferentes. O primeiro exemplo traz um modelo bidimensional apresentado na literatura, faz-se uma comparação dos resultados com representação por meio do elemento de interface, por meio do continuo equivalente e por meio de um elemento solido com fraturas embutidas. O segundo exemplo faz-se um comparativo entre a utilização de elementos quadrilaterais e triangulais para a representação da falha em modelos 3D. Para o terceiro modelo foram realizadas simulações numéricas considerando modelos 2D e 3D em um simulador in-house baseado no método dos elementos finitos. Para a representação do meio continuo foram utilizados elementos quadrilaterais para o caso 2D, e elementos hexaédricos e tetraédricos para o caso 3D. Para a representação das falhas geológicas foram utilizados elementos de interface de espessura nula segundo o critério de ruptura de Mohr-Coulomb. Da comparação dos resultados, constata-se que as análises 2D e 3D forneceram previsões de reativação similares. No entanto, as previsões de pressões de abertura foram distintas em ambos os modelos devido às diferentes trajetórias de migração de fluido. Particularmente em modelos com geometria irregular confirma-se a importância do emprego de modelo 3D. / [en] Oil and gas reservoirs that are structurally compartmented by sealing geological faults are common in several areas around the world. During production, the deformations from the processes of fluid depletion and/or injection can compromise the integrity of the seal of the faults. This deformation, together with the physical and geometrical properties from the rocks and faults can significantly change the stress state. Therefore, it might cause fault reactivation, turning it in a hydraulic conduit. Related to this phenomenon, are the exudation, loss of wellbore integrity and other potential geomechanical problems. There are several numerical modelling techniques available in literature to characterize and predict the reactivation and/or opening of geological faults. In most of these modelling approaches, bi-dimensional models are used for critical sections through the assumption of plane strain conditions. The reason for using 2D models is to avoid the geometrical complexity and the high computational costs associated to three-dimensional modeling. On the other hand, the fault planes in the three-dimensional approach can show fault reactivation in a more critical direction e than the one represented by the bi-dimensional model. In this work, a methodology is presented in order to assess geological fault reactivation. In addition, the importance of using 3D models in the prediction of the geomechanical behavior of reservoirs compartmented by geological faults is discussed. Three different models are presented. The first example is based on a two dimensional model from the literature. A comparison between approaches using interface elements, equivalent continuum elements and solid element with fractures is carried out in the first example. The second example brings a comparison between the quadrilateral and triangular elements to represent faults in a 3D model. In addition, an analysis was carried out considering 2D and 3D models using an in house software based on the finite element method. To simulate the continuum medium, quadrilateral elements are used in the 2D case and in the 3D case hexahedral and tetrahedral elements are employed. In addition, to represent the geological faults, interface elements with zero thickness are used in association with the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In the case study, predictions of fault reactivation were similar in the 2D and 3D models. However, fault opening pressures were different in both models, due to the 3D fluid migration path. It also confirmed the importance of using 3D models when simulating irregular geometries.

Le comportement des structures en béton armé peut s’avérer extrêmement complexe en cas de dépassement de la limite de fissuration du béton. Le caractère composite du béton armé doit être représenté finement. Pour la simulation des structures industrielles, les modèles numériques employés supposent une relation parfaite entre le béton et les armatures qui non seulement ne prennent pas en compte la complexité de la relation entre les deux matériaux mais aussi ne permet pas de présenter finement les caractéristiques de la fissuration étant directement liée à celle des aciers. Dans la littérature, plusieurs méthodes numériques sont proposées pour étudier finement les caractéristiques de la liaison acier-béton, mais toutes ces méthodes posent des difficultés pour les calculs de structures complexes en 3D. En partant des résultats obtenus dans le cadre de la thèse de Torre-Casanova (2012), une nouvelle formation d’un modèle de liaison acier-béton a été développée pour améliorer les performances et la représentativité (comportement cyclique). Ce nouveau modèle a été validé sur un tirant par comparaison avec une solution analytique et des résultats expérimentaux et également testé à l’échelle structurelle pour simuler le comportement d’un voile en cisaillement. Compte tenu de la difficulté pour caractériser numériquement l’ouverture de fissure en cas de fissuration complexe, une nouvelle méthode de post-traitement a également été développée. Finalement, le développement du comportement cyclique de la loi d’adhérence avec enveloppe non-réduite est intégré dans le modèle de liaison acier-béton pour prendre en compte l’irréversibilité du glissement et le boucle d’hystérésis lors du chargement en charge-décharge ou du chargement cyclique. L’application sur un tirant et sur un voile en cisaillement est également effectuée afin d’investiguer le comportement global et local. / Reinforced concrete structure behavior can be extremely complex in the case of exceeding the cracking threshold. The composite characteristics of reinforced concrete structure should be finely presented. In order to compute the industrial structures, a perfect relation hypothesis between steel and concrete is supposed in which not only the complex phenomenon of the two-material relation is not taken into account, but it is also unable to predict the crack characteristics, which is directly linked to the steel. In literature, several numerical methods are proposed in order to finely study the concrete-steel bond behavior, but these methods give many difficulties in computing complex structures in 3D. With the results obtained in the thesis framework of Torre-Casanova (2012), the new concrete-steel bond model has been developed to improve performances (iteration numbers and computational time) and the representation (cyclic behavior) of the initial one. The new model has been verified with analytical solution of steel-concrete tie and validated with the experimental results and equally tested with the structural scale to compute the shear wall behavior. Because of the numerical difficulty in post-processing the crack opening in the complex crack formation, a new crack opening method is also developed. Finally, the cyclic behavior of the bond law with the non-reduced envelope is adopted and integrated in the new bond model in order to take into account the slip irreversibility and the hysteresis during the cyclic load. The application of the model is carried out on a steel-concrete tie and a shear-wall.