First two chapters of this paper deals with the division of optical fiber sensors, digital signal processing and includes price comparison of four experimental sensors. In chapter three analysis, description and evaluation of measurment has been demonstrated on Mach - Zehnder interferometer. Last chapter is about application for signal analysis from vibration sensors. Description contains snippets from source code and graphical user interface. This paper includes three fields - fiber optics, digital signal processing and creation of application - and thanks to them it provides solid basis for study of optic fiber sensors.

We have harnessed the power of programmable photonics devices for an interferometric measurement technique. Laser interferometers are widely used for flow velocity measurements, since they offer high temporal and spatial resolutions. However, often optical wavefront distortions deteriorate the measurement properties. In principle, adaptive optics enables the correction of these disturbances. One challenge is to generate a suitable reference signal for the closed loop operation of the adaptive optics. An adaptive Mach Zehnder interferometer is presented to measure through a dynamic liquid-gas phase boundary, which can lead to a misalignment of the interfering laser beams. In order to generate the reference signal for the closed loop control, the Fresnel reflex of the phase boundary is used as Laser Guide Star (LGS) for the first time to the best of the authors’ knowledge. The concept is related to the generation of artificial stars in astronomy, where the light transmitted by the atmosphere is evaluated. However, the adaptive interferometric flow velocity measurements at real world experiments require a different concept, since only the reflected light can be evaluated. The used LGS allows to measure the wavefront distortions induced by the dynamic phase boundary. Two biaxial electromagnetically driven steering mirrors are employed to correct the wavefront distortions. This opens up the possibility for accurate flow measurements through a dynamic phase boundary using only one optical access. Our work represents a paradigm shift in interferometric velocity measurement techniques from using static to dynamic optical elements.

Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) devices are designed based on the electro-optic (EO) activities of nonlinear optical (NLO) polymer materials for tunable optical filters (TOFs) and spatial light modulators (SLMs). The performance of the EO polymer based FPI devices is theoretically modeled with first order approximation on the FPI cavity interface phase dispersion. NLO materials including TCBD coupled hybrid sol-gel, AJL8/amorphous polycarbonate (APC), and AJLS102/APC are incorporated in FPI structures with distributed Bragg reflector mirrors and transparent conducting oxide electrodes for TOFs. High finesse (over 200), low drive voltage (10 dB isolation ratio with 5 V), and fast settling time (about sub-millisecond) are achieved. The physical origin of the large tunabilities is explored and the contributions from EO effect and inverse piezoelectric effect are analyzed. EO polymer SWOHF3ME/APC is employed in FPI devices with simplified structures for SLMs. Modulation beyond megahertz level is achieved with constant modulation ratio from DC frequency to high operation speed. The operation speed can be potentially over gigahertz with improved device and drive circuit design. When the EO polymer based SLM is configured to work at near the resonance band of the NLO material, the spectral tunability is increased due to resonance enhanced EO activity and the SLM performance is significantly improved. The EO polymer based FPI devices can be further optimized and are promising candidates for many optoelectronic applications.

Electroporation affects the dielectric properties of cells. Dielectric measurement techniques can provide a label-free and non-invasive modality to study this phenomenon. In this thesis we introduce a dielectrophoresis (DEP) based technique to study changes in the cytoplasm conductivity of single Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells immediately after electroporation. Using a microfluidic chip, we study changes in the DEP response of single CHO cells a few seconds after electroporation. First, in order to quantify our DEP measurement results and relate them to the cells internal conductivity, we introduce a dielectric model for CHO cells. This is achieved by measuring the DEP response of many individual cells in the β-dispersion frequency region and curve fitting to the measured data. Second, we present quantitative results for changes in the cytoplasm conductivity of single cells subjected to pulsed electric fields with various intensities. We observe that when electroporation is performed in media with lower ionic concentration than cells cytoplasm, their internal conductivity decreases after electroporation depending on the intensity of applied pulses. We also observe that with reversible electroporation there is a limit on the decrease in the cells’ internal conductivity. We hypothesize the reason is the presence of large and relatively immobile negative ions inside the cell which attract mobile positive ions (mainly sodium and potassium) to maintain cell electrical neutrality. We monitor the temporal response of cells after electroporation to measure the time constant of changes due to ion transport and observe this ranges from seconds to tens of seconds depending on the applied pulse intensity. This result can be used to infer information about the density and resealing time of very small pores (not measurable with conventional marker molecules). Lastly, we measure the electroporation of cells in media with different conductivities. Our results show that electroporation in very low conductivity media requires stronger pulses to achieve a similar poration extent as in high conductivity media. The outcome of this thesis can be used to improve our understanding of the dynamics of electroporation as well as its modelling in order to make more accurate predictions or optimize the process for specific applications. / February 2017

Neste trabalho foram produzidos Interferômetros Mach-Zehnder (IMZ) a partir de guias de onda do tipo pedestal com filmes finos de Bi₂O₃-WO₃-TeO₂ (BWT) como camada de núcleo para aplicações em sensores ópticos integrados. A influência dos parâmetros e dos materiais utilizados nas etapas de processo foi verificada. Os valores de índice de refração efetivo e coeficiente de absorção em função do comprimento de onda foram obtidos para os filmes finos BWT. Os guias de onda pedestais foram caracterizados por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura, medidas de perda por propagação e perfis de campo próximo em 633 nm e 1050 nm. Os valores mínimos obtidos nas perdas por propagação foram de ~1,5 dB/cm em 633 nm e 3,0 dB/cm em 1050 nm. As medidas de perfis de campo próximo mostraram que guias de onda com larguras superiores a 7 m apresentaram comportamento multimodo. Foram obtidos IMZs que apresentaram guiamento de luz por toda a estrutura, com comportamento multimodo. Sensores ópticos de pressão e temperatura foram produzidos. A fabricação de diafragmas através do processo de corrosão úmida do silício é apresentada no sensor de pressão. Sensores ópticos de temperatura foram produzidos com filamentos metálicos. As cavidades ópticas não foram obtidas nesse sensor. A potência de luz na saída dos sensores de temperatura foi medida em função da diferença de potencial aplicada no filamento metálico. Os resultados apresentados mostram que guias de onda do tipo pedestal produzidos com núcleo de BWT são promissores para aplicações em sensores ópticos integrados. / In this work Mach-Zehnder Interferometers (MZI) were produced from the pedestal-type waveguides with Bi₂O₃-WO₃-TeO₂ (BWT) thin films as the core layer for applications in integrated optical sensors. The influence of the parameters and materials used in the process steps was verified. The values of the effective refractive index and absorption coefficient as a function of wavelength were obtained for the BWT thin films. The pedestal waveguides were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy, by propagation loss measurements and near-field profiles at 633 nm and 1050 nm. The minimum values obtained by propagation losses were ~ 1.5 dB/cm at 633 nm and 3.0 dB/cm at 1050 nm. The measures of near-field profiles showed that waveguides with widths larger than 7 m presented multimode behavior. The MZIs obtained presented guiding light through the structure, with multimode behavior. Optical pressure sensors and temperature sensors were produced. The production of diaphragms using the wet etching process of silicon is presented on the pressure sensor. Optical temperature sensors were made with metallic filaments. Optical cavities were not obtained in this sensor. The light power in the output of the temperature sensors was measured as the voltage applied to the metal filament. The results show that the waveguides produced with pedestal-type and BWT thin films as core layer are promising for applications in integrated optical sensors.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de sensores químicos ópticos baseados no Interferômetro Mach-Zehnder (MZI) para aplicações em análises químicas e ambientais. Tais dispositivos foram implementados a partir da fabricação de guias de ondas sobre um substrato de silício monocristalino. Os guias de onda foram obtidos através da deposição de filmes finos de nitreto de silício (Si3N4) e óxido de silício (SiO2) obtidos por técnicas de deposição química a vapor (CVD) e pela oxidação térmica do substrato de silício. A definição destes guias de ondas para a implementação de sensores é feita por processos convencionais de litografia e corrosão. Os sensores químicos deste trabalho baseiam-se na interação do campo evanescente do modo que propaga-se no guia de onda exposto a algum composto químico na fase líquida ou gasosa. Tais sensores foram projetados, simulados e implementados para as seguintes aplicações: Medida da concentração de glicose em soluções; Medida de umidade por efeito de espalhamento; Detecção de vapores de compostos orgânicos voláteis (VOC\'s). As etapas de processo para a fabricação dos sensores químicos ópticos foram definidas a partir das simulações em óptica integrada e, após os processos de fabricação, os filmes obtidos foram caracterizados. Os filmes de Si3N4 SiO2 utilizados na fabricação do sensor óptico possuem uniformidade em espessura e homogeneidade quanto aos valores de índice de refração, baixa rugosidade superficial e baixos níveis de incorporação de água e ligações OH. No entanto, os valores de rugosidade e desuniformidade aumentaram significativamente após as etapas de corrosão úmida para a definição das estruturas dos sensores ópticos. Os guias de ondas implementados apresentaram um guiamento monomodo (TE0) e os valores de atenuação experimentais ficaram entre 2 e 20 dB/cm e dependem dos valores de rugosidade superficial e lateral dos guias de ondas e da desuniformidade dos filmes empregados. Com as medidas de concentração de glicose, verificou-se o funcionamento e a sensibilidade dos sensores químicos ópticos implementados, levantando-se curvas de variação da intensidade de saída do MZI em função do índice de refração de soluções de glicose padronizadas (dn/dc). Realizou-se medidas de umidade através da implementação de um sensor óptico simplificado que tem como princípio o efeito de espalhamento óptico. Como o espalhamento óptico depende da rugosidade e do contraste de índices de refração na interface exposta ao ambiente, foi possível detectar a quantidade de água presente no dispositivo. Posteriormente, analisou-se a aplicação de HMDS (Hexametildissilazana) como filme de adsorção de compostos orgânicos voláteis (VOC\'s). Os VOC\'s foram aplicados sobre os sensores químicos ópticos em forma de vapor e os resultados obtidos para n-Hexano e 2-Propanol mostraram uma boa reprodutibilidade e alta sensibilidade. / The aim of this work is the development of optical chemical sensors based on Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) for chemical and environmental analysis applications. Such devices were implemented with waveguides fabricated on a silicon substrate. The waveguides were obtained using silicon nitride (Si3N4) and silicon oxide (SiO2) films obtained by CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) and thermal oxidation of the silicon substrate. The waveguides and the optical sensors were fabricated using conventional lithograph and etching processes. The developed chemical sensors are based on the evanescent field interaction in a waveguide exposed to a liquid or gaseous phase of a chemical compound. Such optical sensor were designed, simulated and implemented for the following applications: Glucose concentration; Humidity measurement by scattering effect; Volatile organic compounds (VOC\'s) vapors detection. The process steps for the optical chemical sensor fabrication were defined during the integrated optical simulations and the films were characterized after the fabrication process steps. The Si3N4 and SiO2 films used in the optical sensor fabrication are uniform and homogenous (thickness and refractive index), with low surface roughness and low levels of water incorporation and OH bonds. However, the roughness values increased significantly after the etching process for the optical sensor structures definition. The implemented waveguides were singlemoded (TE0), with experimental attenuation values between 2 and 20 dB/cm, depending on the surface and sidewall roughness of the waveguide and of the films uniformity. The operation principle and the sensitivity of the optical chemical sensor were verified by glucose concentration measurements, by measuring the MZI output variation intensity as a function of the refractive index of the glucose standard solutions (dn/dc). As the light scattering depends of the roughness and the of refractive index difference between the exposed interface and the atmosphere, it\'s possible to measure the humidity or the amount of water in the interaction window. Afterwards, the detection of volatile organic compounds (VOC\'s) was done using a HMDS (Hexamethyldissilazane) layer to adsorb the VOC\'s. The VOC\'s vapor was applied on the optical chemical sensors and the results obtained for n-Hexane and 2-Propanol showed a good reproducibility and high sensitivity.

Eine Reihe fundamentaler Problemstellungen setzt die genaue Kenntnis der Erdbeschleunigung g voraus, z.B. die Neudefinition des Kilogramms im laufenden Watt-Waage-Projekt. Des Weiteren sind Gravitationsmessungen ein herausragendes Werkzeug der geophysikalischen Forschung, machen sie doch Phänomene vom oberen Erdreich bis hinab in den Erdkern zugänglich. Für Absolutmessungen geeignete Quanten-Sensoren mit höchster Präzision sind deshalb Gegenstand aktueller Entwicklungen. Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Planung und Implementierung eines solchen Sensors, der für eine überlegene absolute Genauigkeit von fünf Teilen in 10^10, zu erreichen in Messungen von 24 h, ausgelegt ist. Ein Merkmal, das dieses Instrument vor früheren Entwicklungen auszeichnet, ist seine Mobilität, die Anwendungen im Feld sowie Vergleichsmessungen mit anderen Gravimetern ermöglicht. Die quantenmechanische Wellennatur von (Rubidium-) Atomen wird genutzt, um durch kohärente Teilung, Reflexion und Wiedervereinigung der sie konstituierenden Wellenpakete mit Hilfe von Lichtpulsen ein Materiewelleninterferometer darzustellen. Auf ein Ensemble lasergekühlter Atome im freien Fall angewandt, kann deren Empfindlichkeit auf Inertialkräfte genutzt werden, um hochsensible Messungen der auftretenden Beschleunigungen zu erreichen. Eine Messpräzision von 160 nm s^(-2) / sqrt(Hz) wird demonstriert, die ausreicht, um g in 15 h mit einer statistischen Ungewissheit von 0.8 nm s^(-2) zu bestimmen; dies ist um einen Faktor acht besser, als mit den besten klassischen Absolutgravimetern üblich. Ein Vergleich mit dem Deutschen Schweregrundnetz ergibt eine Abweichung von 260 nm s^(-2) bei einer Ungewissheit von 520 nm s^(-2) in den systematischen Einflüssen. Deren wahrscheinliche Ursachen sowie geeignete Gegenmaßnahmen werden identifiziert. / Precise measurements of Earth''s gravitational acceleration $g$ are important for a range of fundamental problems - e.g. the Watt balance as an approach for a new definition of the kilogram - and a great tool to investigate geophysical phenomena reaching from the topmost layers of soil to the very core of our planet. Recently, research efforts have been made to develop dedicated quantum sensors capable of such measurements with very high precision and accuracy. This thesis describes the design and implementation of such a sensor, aiming at a superior accuracy of 0.5 ppb, resolvable in measurements of 24 h. A feature distinguishing this device from previous work is its mobility, allowing for comparison with other state-of-the-art instruments, and for applications in field use in various locations. Rubidium atoms are laser-cooled and launched on a free-fall trajectory. Exploiting the wave nature of quantum particles, coherent manipulation with light pulses is used to split, reflect and recombine the atoms'' wave-packets. The resulting matter-wave interferometer is highly susceptible to inertial forces and allows for sensitive measurements of accelerations. Inertial sensing with a precision of 160 nm s^(-2) / sqrt(Hz) was demonstrated, resulting in a measurement of g with a statistical uncertainty of 0.8 nm s^(-2) in 15 h, surpassing a conventional state-of-the-art absolute gravimeter by a factor of eight. Comparison with the German gravity reference net revealed a discrepancy of 260 nm s^(-2), well covered by the combined systematic uncertainties of 520 nm s^(-2). Likely causes for this deviation are identified and suitable countermeasures are proposed.

Este trabalho abordará uma breve descrição de fenômenos óticos não lineares, apresentando resultados de caracterização ótica não linear para diferentes materiais, assim como resultados para uma nova técnica de caracterização. Serão apresentados aspectos básicos de determinação do índice de refração não linear através da técnica de varredura Z que é um método bem estabelecido e amplamente difundido. Esta técnica porém não é eficiente para filmes finos e amostras com baixa não linearidade. Com a utilização de uma montagem interferométrica é possível gerar um crescimento na sensibilidade da técnica, atenuando o oscilador local sem nenhuma perda no sinal não linear gerado, acarretando em uma melhoria da relação sinal-ruído. / An introduction to nonlinear optics will be addressed in this work, presenting results of optical characterization to many different materials as well as results from a new characterization technique. Basic aspects to nonlinear index refraction measurement will be presented through Z-scan, which is a well-established method. This technique is not efficient for thin films or samples presenting low nonlinearity. Using a interferometric setup is possible to produce an increase in sensibility, attenuanting local oscillator without degrading the generated nonlinear signal, what establishes a better signal-noise relation.

Wave scattering by arrays of cylinders has received special attention by many authors and analytical solutions have been derived. The investigation of optical and acoustical analogies to the problem of interaction of water waves with rigid and flexible cylinder arrays is the main focus of this thesis. In acoustics, a sound may be attenuated while it propagates through a layer of bubbly liquid. In fact, if the natural frequency of the bubbles is in the range of the wave periods, the attenuation becomes more evident. The ultimate objective of the research described herein is to determine if this phenomenon may also be found in the interaction between water waves and arrays of flexible cylinders. In a first approach, arrays of rigid cylinders are studied in shallow water. The array is treated as an effective medium, which allows for the definition of reflection and transmission coefficients for the array, and theories from Hu and Chan (2005) associated with the Fabry-Perot interferometer are compared against direct computations of wave scattering using the commercial code WAMIT. Reflection and transmission coefficients from WAMIT are evaluated by applying a Maximum Likelihood Method. The results from WAMIT were found to be in good agreement with those obtained from the effective medium theory. Due to observed inconsistencies for short wave periods and small incident angles, the effective width of the medium is defined and corrected. For the case of a flexible cylinder, generalized modes corresponding to deformations of the cylinder's surface are formulated and added to WAMIT's subroutine. Equations of motion are derived from the theory of vibration for thin shells and mass and stiffness matrices are defined. The objective is to maximize wave attenuation from the array of flexible cylinders. Therefore, the natural periods of the "breathing" mode for these cylinders is set in the range of the studied wave periods. Then, material properties, as well as mass and stiffness matrices, are chosen to achieve this effect.

In this thesis work, the implementations of the monopulse amplitude comparison and phase comparison DF algorithms are performed on an FPGA platform. After the mathematical formulation of the algorithms using maximum-likelihood approach is done, software simulations are carried out to validate and find the DF accuracies of the algorithms under various conditions. Then the algorithms are implemented on an FPGA platform by utilizing platform specific software tools. Block diagrams of the hardware implementations are given and explained in detail. Then simulations of hardware implementation of both algorithms are performed. Using the results of the simulations, DF accuracies under certain conditions are evaluated and compared to software simulations results.