This research formed part of a broader research project that explored respect in relationships between young female adults and older people (60+ years) in a South African context. Different themes emerged from this research such as the motivation younger people have for respecting older persons; as well as different forms of giving and receiving respect. This research will specifically focus on themes that emerged inductively about the relational context in which the experiences of respect were expressed and the challenges of respect in the interpersonal experiences. It has been recorded in literature on intergenerational relationships that respect is not only an essential element in these relationships but also that it contributes to constructive relationships. Most of the research about respect has been conducted in Asian and Western countries, while some research has also been done in Ghana, Africa. The above mentioned research findings identified specific behavioural forms of respect, and attitudes and/or emotions associated with respect. Furthermore it has been found that respect can either be earned or deserved, or not, depending on whether and to what extent the person concerned is considered to have met certain requirements. Little research has been done on how people, especially young female adults in South Africa, experience respect in intergenerational relationships. Experiences of respect between people from different generations always take place in an interpersonal context and therefore the Self-Interaction Group Theory (SIGT) was used to understand young female adults’ experiences of respect in relationships with older people. Following SIGT, for the purposes of this study respect is defined as the subjective experience of the relational interactions between people. The focus in this study falls on the experience of respect in relationships with older people from young female adults’ perspective. Traditionally female gender roles have been associated with care. However, these roles changed to more flexible gendered roles and today women are not able to adopt many different roles. The past generations’ women took care of their older parents, whereas in the present women also pursue careers and this may have an influence on their interactions with older people as they may not necessarily be able to take care of the older people anymore. The research project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the North-West University. A qualitative research method informed by an exploratory and descriptive approach was used in an attempt to describe the participants’ subjective experiences of respect in the relationships they have with older people. A purposive sample was used and 26 women (between 21 and 28 years old) who are post-graduate psychology university students in the North West, South Africa, participated in the study. The study used a homogenous group of participants in order to get a detailed picture of their experiences. Young adults are in a transitory phase of their lives and research indicated that it is important to investigate their attitudes towards older people because they are likely to form new values, because their lives and behaviours are more influenced by their peers and because they have less parental supervision. Data was collected in three data-gathering sessions over the period of three days. Textual and visual data was collected through the use of the Mmogo- method®, a projective visual research method which uses a focus group approach. The Mmogo- method® material consists of a lump of malleable clay, different sizes and colours of beads and dried grass stalks of different lengths. Participants are provided with the open-ended materials and based on an open-ended prompt, they are requested to create a visual representation, which in this research was: Please use the material provided and create anything that can tell us more about how you perceive respect in relation to a person, or persons older than 60 years of age. After the exercise participants were asked to explain what they have created. A collaborative effort of co-constructed meanings took place as the visual representation of each participant became the stimulus material for group discussions. The visual representations of participants were photographed and analysed using visual analysis, while the digital recordings of the individuals’ explanations of their visual representations as well as the group discussions were transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis. Trustworthiness was ensured by applying four strategies, including: credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability of the research findings. The findings revealed that the relationship with older persons is subjectively described in terms of emotional or cognitive experiences and associated with specific relational contexts. In the familial and social context the experience of respect were linked with care and most of these relationships were described as affectionate/emotional. In the familial and social contexts, older persons were placed in a one-up position with the young adults, since the young adults want to obey and/or honour them. Some described the relationship as a relationship where they interacted as equals. In different contexts, work related, educational and familial, young adults expressed ambivalent emotions: some expressed admiration and love, while others expressed frustration and anger. In the work-related and educational relational contexts, the relationships were experienced as being formal and described in cognitive terms. In these relationships young adults expressed frustration and anger if their needs were not addressed based on how the relational context defined the relationship. For example in the educational contexts, the needs of the young adults were to get clarity on learning content, to receive support to reach their goals, and to reach emotional safety. Young female adults indicated that respect towards older persons is no longer based on the age of older persons. It rather depends on the reciprocal actions and reactions between young adults and older persons; and that it depends on how the relationship between the generational members develops over time, as well as the ability of generational members to bridge the distance between them and to adopt each other’s life worlds, whilst refraining from judgemental and stereotypical assessment of older persons. This study hence holds important implications for the creation of intergenerational programmes in order to enhance relationships between young adults and older people. A specific contribution of the findings is that when planning interventions intergenerational programmes should be designed to take into consideration the specific interpersonal context. Furthermore, the definitions of respect as held by both of the generational members should be considered in planning intergenerational interventions in specific interpersonal contexts. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Previous research on respect in intergenerational relations showed a significant association with the sustainability of the relationship that exists between generations. Respect in intergenerational relationships is a relational phenomenon. As such, respect is defined as subjective experiences of interpersonal interactions between members of different generations. For the purpose of this study, intergenerational relationships refer to interactions between people older than 60 years (G1-first generation in a family) and younger people (between the ages of 20 and 30) who constitute the third generation (G3-third generation in a family). The theoretical frameworks that informed this study are a combination of the Interpersonal Theory, Interpersonal Communication Theory that informs the principles of the Self-Interactional Group Theory (SIGT). The Interpersonal Theory and the Interpersonal Communication Theory conceptualise interactions between people on an interpersonal level. The SIGT however gives meaning to interactions specifically between members of different generations. SIGT theory conceptualizes that intergenerational relations and its principles are rooted in the idea of stimulating effective relationships and supporting intergenerational cohesion. According to this theory, interactions between members of different generations always occur within an interpersonal context shaped by continuous interaction between them. This interpersonal context also determines the significance of communication within the interactions between generations. Extensive work on respect in intergenerational relationships has mostly been done in Asian and Western regions, with a specific focus on the typological forms of respect from the perspectives of younger generations. This resulted in the identification of 14 typological forms of respect for older people. Research on respect in Africa conducted in Ghana revealed that respect is a reciprocal construct, while a study in South Africa on respect between Zulu grandmothers and their grandchildren reported a decline in grandchildren‟s respect for their grandmothers. Little to no literature was found on young adults‟ in transition experiences of respect in their relations with older people which constitutes a conceptual gap in the field of contemporary intergenerational research in South Africa and motivates the focus of this study. This study explores respect from the perspective of Afrikaans speaking young adults‟ in their relations with people older than 60 years. Before conducting the research, ethical approval was obtained from the Health Research Ethics Council (HREC) of the North-West University, and the researcher adhered to the ethical guidelines prescribed by the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). This research was conducted in a higher educational context, at the North-West University‟s Potchefstroom campus in South Africa. A qualitative approach was used to explore 23 (22 female and 1 male) Afrikaans-speaking young adults‟ experiences of respect in their relations with older people. This group was purposively chosen as being in transitional life phase-from dependence to independence and autonomy. Data were collected over the course of three days by means of the Mmogo-method®, a visual projective data-collection technique. The Mmogo-method® enables the researcher to collect culture sensitive data embedded in the lived experiences of the participants. Participants are provided with materials consisting of a lump of clay, grass straws, colourful beads and piece of fabric in a closed container. Participants were asked to use the material in the container to construct something that could demonstrate how they experienced respect in their relations with a person older than 60 years. The projections participants built served as the focus for subsequent discussion, in the course which they explained what they had made and its relevance to the research question. In addition, prompt questions were asked to stimulate a focus group discussion. Textual data were analysed by means of thematic analysis, and by incorporating the symbolic meaning of the visual representation with the text of each participant. To ensure the quality and enhance the trustworthiness of this study, credibility, transferability, conformability, dependability and integrity of the researcher were applied throughout the research process. Findings revealed that the young adults described their experiences of respect within a specific relational context which they share with older people. Furthermore, their respect for older people is supported by normative values that motivate the young adults to offer them respect. The young adults experience respect in the relational context as reciprocal: they give respect to older people by means of altruistic actions and by being present in the lives of older people. In turn, they receive emotional and material care from older people as a form of respect. The findings of this study inform research into the relational nature of intergenerational respect which may be drawn upon for the development of intergenerational programmes to promote sustainable cohesion in intergenerational relationships. / MSc (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

It is well known that a parental break-up in childhood has a negative influence on the intergenerational contact in adulthood. The intergenerational contact within dissolved families is less frequent than in intact families. Nonetheless, even among families that experienced a break-up in childhood, differences in contact frequency are observable. How come those individuals seem to be affected in different ways by a parental break-up? Previous research is lacking the answer to this question. Thus, the aim of this thesis is to contribute to research on dissolved families by exploring which conditions influence intergenerational contact among adult children and their divorced/separated parents. The data used in this thesis come from the Swedish Level of Living Survey and the analyses are conducted using OLS-regressions. First, it was verified that dissolved families have a less frequent intergenerational contact than intact families in contemporary Sweden, however, with the exception of the contact between divorced/separated mothers and their daughters. Second, the variation in contact among dissolved families is, to a large part, explained by differences in living distance between the adult child and the parent. Furthermore, it was found that conflict between the respondent and the parent in childhood has a significant influence on intergenerational contact in adulthood. The results thus highlight the importance of including childhood events other than the divorce/separation when investigating intergenerational contact.

This study focuses on the experiences of the relationship between adolescents with asthma and their parents. Even though asthma has been described as the most common chronic illness in adolescence, very little research has been undertaken on the combined impact of asthma on the parent-adolescent relationship. The goal of this study was to explore and describe how adolescents with asthma and their parents experience their relationships with each other. The research was conducted from a qualitative research approach and followed a case study design. This allowed the researcher to develop an understanding of the meaning that the participants gave to their life experiences. A total of four families consisting of one adolescent and two parents each was purposefully selected and obtained with the assistance of a medical practitioner specialising in pulmonary disease in Bloemfontein. The adolescents had to be between the ages of 14 and 18, formally diagnosed with asthma by a medical practitioner and currently be taking medication prescribed by the relevant practitioner. In addition they had to be living with both of their biological parents in the same household. The qualitative data were gathered in the form of individual reflective journals, semistructured group interviews and unstructured individual interviews. The researcher‟s objective was to understand and interpret the meanings the participants gave to their own experiences, which were further done through field notes, member checking, and drawings participants made in the reflective journals. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed by the researcher. Thematic data analysis was used to transform the journal entries and transcribe data into meaningful information. The drawings made in the journals were analysed with the assistance of participants, thus a shared analysis. The Constant Comparative method was used to identify themes related to the research question from the researcher‟s field notes. The principles and strategies for ensuring the trustworthiness of the data were done through crystallisation. The findings of the study revealed that adolescents and their parents experienced mixed emotions in terms of asthma and the impact asthma had on their relationships. The adolescents‟ and parents‟ beliefs concerning the topics of the research were often contradictory. It was evident that they experience specific and often contrasting roles and responsibilities regarding the management of asthma in the parent-adolescent relationship, and most families had to make significant adjustments in their family lifestyle and relationships as a result of the adolescents‟ asthma. / MA (Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Background. The Maya are one of the largest Mesoamerican groups. The decline of the classic Maya society, the subsequent Colonial domination and the current national economic policies has had a severe biological and social impact on the Maya across several generations. Accumulated evidence suggests that conditions and environments experienced by one generation can affect the health, growth and development of the next generation (Emanuel, 1986). Historical evidence of political, educational and socioeconomic deprivation suffered by the Maya from Yucatan, Mexico, provides us with the opportunity to test the intergenerational influence hypothesis and ascertain the impact of the biosocial background of urban Maya grandmothers (first generation) and mothers (second generation) on the growth and nutritional status of their children (third generation). Aims. The main objective is to assess the impact of socioeconomic and intergenerational factors on the growth of Maya children, in a sample of children, their mothers and maternal grandmothers. The specific objectives are: 1) to assess the nutritional status and nutritional dual burden prevalence in participants, 2) to identify the pre and postnatal biosocial and economic factors that relate to the nutritional status of the children, and 3) to assess the intergenerational influences on the growth of participants: from grandmothers to mothers and from grandmothers and mothers to children. Methods. The sample is composed of 109 triads of Maya children (6-8 years old), their mothers and their maternal grandmothers from the city of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. From September 2011 to June 2012 we collected anthropometric, body composition and socioeconomic data on the three generations. We also assessed parameters about living conditions of maternal and grand-maternal childhood. Nutritional status was assessed by comparing the participants against the Comprehensive Growth References published by Frisancho (2008) and based on the NHANES III. Pre and postnatal biosocial and economic factors were analysed through multiple regression models. Intergenerational influences were assessed through: 1) bivariate and partial correlations in anthropometric and derived variables between participants, 2) path analysis to identify the direction and magnitude of direct and indirect causal effects between the three generations, and 3) multiple regression models to identify the effect of anthropometric and socioeconomic intergenerational factors on the growth of mothers and children. Results. Eleven percent of the children were categorized as stunted and 36% met the criteria of risk for abdominal obesity. Only 1% of children exhibited the combination of stunting and abdominal obesity. Mothers and grandmothers showed very low average heights and high levels of abdominal obesity. The combination of maternal abdominal obesity and child stunting was present in the 6% of mother-child dyads. It was found that preeclampsia and cigarette smoke exposure during pregnancy and household overcrowding impacted negatively the linear growth of the children. Maternal education and the presence of grandmothers at home predicted healthier values of BMI, waist circumference, body fat and body lean mass percentages on children. Maternal height and leg length (LL = height sitting height) were positively associated with the linear growth of children. These associations were not modified by the grand-maternal size, in terms of very short stature. In contrast, associations in weight, body mass index, sum of skinfolds and fat mass were stronger in grandmother-child pairs than in mother-child pairs. The birth weight of the children was positively associated with maternal head circumference and negatively associated with the absence of a toilet at home during maternal childhood (i.e. when the mother was growing up). Grand-maternal intergenerational predictors of children s height, leg length, body mass index, waist circumference and skinfolds were: index of household characteristics, family size and school attendance during childhood. Family size and paternal job loss during maternal childhood were the maternal intergenerational factors that influenced significantly the body mass index, waist circumference and skinfolds of children. Conclusions. Growth and nutritional status of the children, mothers and grandmothers reflect the effects of chronic deprivation and poverty that are a constant among the Maya in the Yucatan. Under and-overnutrition coexisted in this sample of three generations. Pre-and-postnatal biosocial and economic factors impacted the growth and nutritional status of children. Harsh living conditions experienced by mothers and grandmothers during their childhood influenced the prenatal and postnatal growth of children. We suggest that disadvantaged conditions experienced by mothers and grandmothers during their first years of life impacted their own growth and this in turn is influencing the growth of children of the third generation. Substantial reductions in poverty levels and increase educational levels of the mothers are required to overcome the intergenerational traces on the future generations.

In this thesis I describe Khmers negotiations of circumstances surrounding the disassembly, reconstruction, and redefinition of Khmer identity from their homeland in Cambodia to a traditional Khmer village recreated in the United States. Using a framework derived from a constructivist perspective, I have placed processes of negotiation and identity transformation within the lived context of Khmers lives. Thus, a holistic understanding of the interrelatedness of multiple changes in Khmerness is made possible. Ethnographic data collected between 1997 and 1999, through participant-observation and interviews, inform this study. Findings from this study reveal three levels of identity transformation as told by members of a small Khmer village established along the U. S. Gulf of Mexico. However, these three levels of transformation are not mutually exclusive nor are they necessarily sequential. Each transformation of Khmers identities constitutes permeable aggregates of other past and continuing disassemblies, reconstructions and redefinitions of Khmerness. Findings from this study demonstrate that Khmer identity shifts and is transformed by past and present experiences and with their changing circumstances, from endangered Cambodian, to refugees, to re-established Khmers in America.

The present study examined the effect of family of origin characteristics on current marital satisfaction, within a sample of newlywed couples, using dyadic and mixed methods approaches to conceptualization, data collection, and data analysis.The data used to investigate this process--sometimes called intergenerational transmission--was collected in two phases. First, quantitative data in the form of close-ended questions was collected separately from each member of 190 newlywed couples via hard-copy questionnaires. These questionnaires included measures of family of origin characteristics (e.g., interparental conflict), current marital processes (e.g., conflict resolution style), and marital outcomes (e.g., marital satisfaction). Second, in-depth and open-ended questions were asked of 18 couples in semi-structured couple interviews. The 18 couples who were interviewed in phase two of the data collection represent a purposive sub-sample of the original 190 couples from phase one of data collection.Results of structural equation modeling of a conceptual model based on the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Cook & Kenny, 2005) indicated that the family or origin characteristics measured predicted a decrease in marital satisfaction, especially for wives. In addition, mixed evidence was found for the potential meditational role of conflict resolution style. Results of thematic coding of the interview data revealed that: a) families of origin serve as marriage role models in complex and multifaceted ways; b) there are other important models of marriage, aside from families of origin, that influence marital outcomes; c) it is likely that couples use a combination of different marriage role models to form their ideas of marriage (and therefore their marital outcomes); and d) it is possible that in some cases families of origin do not provide a marriage role model at all.Finally, results of a configural comparative analysis utilizing both the quantitative and qualitative data revealed that couples negotiate the pathway from their families of origin to their own marriages in diverse ways. Three distinct pathways were identified, including a "modeling" pathway, a "modified modeling" pathway, and a "compensation" pathway. Interpretations and implications of these findings are discussed. In addition, future directions for research in this area are suggested.

A broad research project was conducted into experiences of respect in intergenerational relationships. The focus of this particular study fell on the motivations of respect for older people from the perspective of adults and young adults. Respect has been identified as an important aspect in promoting intergenerational relationships. In this research, intergenerational relations refer to the interaction between older people (60 + years), who form part of generation 1 (G1) and younger people, generation 3 (G3). Adults and young adults who participated in this study share the same historical generation, meaning that they experienced the same historical events. For the purpose of this study respect is defined as the subjective experience of the interactions between two people from different generations. Previous research into respect in intergenerational relationships has mostly been conducted in Asian and Western countries, with the exception of one study in Ghana, Africa. This existing research focused solely on the types of respectful behaviour employed in intergenerational relationships. Fourteen types have been identified. Philosophers regard respect as an important moral consideration. Adults‟ moral development is complex and linked to their cognitive and ego capacities. Moral development evolves during human development and manifests motivation that usually moves from extrinsic to intrinsic. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) defines motivation as the force that moves people to do something. SDT varies in the amount and type of motivation and also distinguishes among intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it will lead to a desired outcome, whereas intrinsic motivation is about an inherently pleasing action. A qualitative approach was followed to describe the experiences of adults and young adults and to identity their motivations for respect. The research was conducted at North-West University‟s Potchefstroom Campus in South Africa to obtain participants who are in a transitional context. The adults and young adults who participated in this study were in a transitional phase: being part of a tertiary educational context confronted them with different world views from what they were used to. Twenty-seven white adults and young adults between 22 and 48 years of age participated. A sample of two men and 25 women who are post-graduate psychology students were conveniently chosen for this study. Data-gathering took place over three days and was conducted in a focus group manner by using the Mmogo-method®. The Mmogo-method® requires that participants receive a lump of clay, grass stalks and beads. Participants were asked to build something to show how they experience respect in relation to a person older than 60 years. Prompting questions were then asked, after which the participants had the opportunity to describe verbally what they had built. Data were analyzed by means of sequential and visual analyses. Data were originally analyzed using within-case displays where each case was analyzed individually; next, cross-case displays were done and linked to the visual presentations to plot on the four presented types of motivation. Trustworthiness was ensured by applying four strategies, including: credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability. The research was approved by the ethical committee of North-West University. The researcher applied ethical guidelines as prescribed by the Health Professions Council of South Africa during and after the research was conducted. Findings revealed that adults and young adults were moved to respect older people by four different types of motivation, presented as typologies. The types include extrinsic/conditional motivation, extrinsic/unconditional motivation, self-motivated/conditional motivation and self-motivated/unconditional motivation. These findings may be used to develop programmes to promote sustainable intergenerational relationships. / MA (Research Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

La problématique de cette thèse prend sa source dans des données actuelles qui montrent la rapidité et l'intensité du vieillissement populationnel, ce qui génère une augmentation du nombre absolu d’aînés dans la population. De pair avec l’augmentation du nombre d’aînés, de nos jours, grâce aux progrès médicaux et scientifiques, plus d’aînés sont en bonne santé et cela même chez les nonagénaires. Ce panorama peut faire en sorte que plus d’aînés restent actifs, même après la retraite. Dans ce contexte, il est souhaitable de mettre à la disposition des individus des moyens afin d’encourager le vieillissement actif, dont l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie se démarque comme le principal pilier. D’une façon générale, les représentations sociales de la vieillesse et des aînés dans le contexte occidental contemporain sont souvent liées au déclin physique et cognitif. Lorsque le déclin est associé à la vieillesse, l’apprentissage pendant cette phase de la vie peut paraître impossible. La façon par laquelle l’apprentissage chez les aînés est représenté peut influencer l’accès de ces derniers aux activités d’apprentissage, ce qui peut avoir des retombées sur le vieillissement actif. La perspective intergénérationnelle de cette thèse se justifie notamment par l’augmentation des rapports intergénérationnels dans tous les contextes sociaux pour les années à venir. La présente étude a comme objectif général de dégager les représentations sociales de l’apprentissage chez les aînés selon une perspective intergénérationnelle. Les objectifs spécifiques consistent à : 1) Décrire la variété des représentations sociales de l’apprentissage chez les aînés parmi des populations étudiantes d’âges variés, 2) Analyser la distribution des représentations sociales de l’apprentissage chez les aînés, en fonction des catégories sociodémographiques (sexe, âge, niveau de scolarité et intervalle de revenu individuel), 3) Identifier d’éventuelles traces d’âgisme à l’intérieur des représentations de l’apprentissage chez les aînés, 4) Comprendre le lien entre les représentations sociales de l’apprentissage chez les aînés et l’âgisme. La présente recherche a un devis mixte et transversal. Les résultats révèlent l’existence de sept représentations de l’apprentissage chez les aînés : R1 (Les ainés ont besoin de plus de soutien pour apprendre que les jeunes), R2 (Les ainés sont plus autonomes dans l'apprentissage), R3 (Il est impossible que les jeunes et les aînés apprennent ensemble), R4 (La société n'encourage pas l’engagement des aînés dans des activités d’apprentissage), R5 (Les stratégies et le sens de l'apprentissage des jeunes et des aînés sont différents), R6 (Les jeunes et les aînés ont les mêmes capacités d'apprentissage) et R7 (L'acte d’apprendre est productif et lié à la jeunesse), qui obtiennent des degrés d’adhésion divers au sein de la population. Nous observons des associations significatives entre certaines représentations sociales de l’apprentissage chez les aînés et l’âge, le niveau de scolarité et le revenu individuel. Les résultats mettent aussi en lumière les représentations de l’apprentissage chez les jeunes qui sont fortement associées à l’insertion et au maintien dans une vie productive au travail, alors que le sens de l’apprentissage pendant la vieillesse est davantage associé à la quête d’épanouissement personnel. C’est ainsi que l’apprentissage informel finit par être considéré comme étant la modalité d’apprentissage la plus fréquente pendant la vieillesse. L’avancement des connaissances généré par la présente thèse peut contribuer : 1) À la mise en œuvre et à l’amélioration des activités d’apprentissage qui ont comme cible la population aînée, ce qui peut stimuler l’engagement de cette population à des activités d’apprentissage, 2) À la promotion du vieillissement actif, même indirectement, 3) À la réduction de l’âgisme envers les aînés et 4) À l’augmentation de la compréhension de la dynamique établie entre les générations.

Based on Prime Minister Harper’s 2008 Apology for the Indian Residential School (IRS) system, this thesis addresses the need to confront the intergenerational legacy of this system on non-Indigenous Canadians in order to challenge our ability to actually ‘journey together’ with Indigenous Survivors. Aiming to break the silence that has surrounded this legacy, the voices of non-Indigenous descendents of former staff, as well as my own as a non-Indigenous Canadian, expose personal experiences of the lived reality of the IRS legacy. Working from a narrative methodology from within a decolonizing framework, this research includes interviews with two descendents of former staff, as well as an auto-ethnography of myself, as researcher, to capture the lived experiences with relation to this legacy. Results from this introductory work illustrate a variety of themes needing to be acknowledged, and deals with notions of opening dialogue, violence, guilt and responsibility within the context of the IRS system. / Graduate / 0334 / 0626 / 0630 / khaiste@gmail.com