This work is devoted to international law, particularly humanitarian law and human rights with emphasis on international legal instruments governing the position of children serving in the armed forces. In this work are discussed various international conventions, as well as mechanisms for the protection of child soldiers. The first chapter defines the position of child soldiers and the specifics of their involvement in military conflicts. The decisive criteria for the involvement of children in government armed forces or non-state army is age. Furthermore there is described into more details the mechanism of conscription into the army. There is difference between voluntary and forced recruitment of child soldiers. The various international legal instruments are analyzed more in detail in chapter two. The issue of Child soldiers is addressed with both the rules of humanitarian law, specifically the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions and Human rights conventions. Special attention is paid to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict. Analyzed is the only regional convention addressing the problem of child soldiers -the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. The issue of child recruitment is also...

O presente estudo tem por escopo analisar e reconstruir os fundamentos que informam os contornos da emblemática figura dos estabelecimentos permanentes. Muito embora a doutrina e a jurisprudência internacional tenham laborado ingente esforço no sentido de prover um conceito uniforme para tal expressão, sem o qual o legítimo exercício da jurisdição para tributar rendimentos empresariais pode restar prejudicado, ainda há muito o que ser discutido e examinado. Isso porque a economia global, assentada em uma intensa mobilidade de riquezas, evidencia a crescente diversificação das formas de organização empresarial, de modo que a regulação necessária a atender as peculiaridades atinentes a cada modalidade negocial demanda um exame aprofundado e contínuo. Nesse cenário, a clara definição e perfeita compreensão do relevante conceito do estabelecimento permanente, bem como a delimitação dos critérios indispensáveis à sua aplicação, têm cardeal relevância para as modernas relações comerciais. Tal relevância decorre do papel que atribuímos ao estabelecimento permanente neste trabalho, por reputálo enquanto elemento de conexão objetivo, eleito por excelência pelos tratados para evitar a dupla tributação no tocante aos itens de rendimentos empresariais em geral. Tomando como paradigma o modelo de convenção elaborada pela Organização de Cooperação e de Desenvolvimento Econômico, e somando a este os influxos do modelo produzido pela Organização das Nações Unidas, será possível traçar um conceito multifacetado de estabelecimento permanente, com base em determinados critérios classificatórios. Fundados em tais categorias, conduziremos o exame das convenções internacionais firmadas pelo Brasil e analisaremos como os enunciados veiculados por tais instrumentos devem ser operados face ao ordenamento doméstico brasileiro. Com efeito, a tese ora apresentada buscará municiar seus leitores dos instrumentos conceituais necessários para que o conceito de estabelecimento permanente seja aplicado de forma efetiva e coerente com as práticas internacionais. Almeja-se, com isso, traçar algumas propostas para solucionar o afã despertado por problemáticas fiscais suscitadas no bojo do Direito Internacional Tributário, no intuito de contribuir em favor da adoção pelo Brasil de postura mais condizente com os anseios da comunidade internacional. / The scope of this study is to analyze and reconstruct the foundations that outline the emblematic figure of permanent establishments. Although the international doctrine and case law have made great effort to provide such expression with a uniform concept - without which the legitimate exercise of the jurisdiction to tax business income could be impaired - there is still much to be discussed and examined. The global economy, which is based upon intense wealth mobility, attests the increasing diversification of entrepreneurial organization forms, in such a way that proper regulation requires a profound and continuous analysis, in order to meet the needs of the peculiarities of each business modality. Within this context, the clear definition and complete comprehension of this relevant concept (that of permanent establishments), as well as the delimitation of the criteria necessary to its proper application, are of the utmost importance for the modern commercial relations. Such importance derives from the role attributed to the permanent establishment in this essay, considered as an objective connecting factor elected by the double tax treaties in connection with business profits. Using the Model Convention of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development as a paradigm, and adding the input from the model elaborated by the United Nations, it will be possible to draw a multifaceted concept of permanent establishment, based upon some specific classificatory aspects. Such categories are the grounds for promoting a survey of the international conventions entered into by Brazil, as well as an analysis on how the norms enacted under such vehicles shall be operated in view of the Brazilian domestic law. In fact, the present thesis aims at providing readers with the necessary conceptual instruments to apply the concept of permanent establishment effectively and coherently with the international law practice. With that, this study elaborates on proposals to solve some tax problems emerged within the framework of the International Tax Law, with the purpose of contributing for the adoption of an approach by Brazil which is more consistent with the aspiration of the international community.

O presente estudo tem por escopo analisar e reconstruir os fundamentos que informam os contornos da emblemática figura dos estabelecimentos permanentes. Muito embora a doutrina e a jurisprudência internacional tenham laborado ingente esforço no sentido de prover um conceito uniforme para tal expressão, sem o qual o legítimo exercício da jurisdição para tributar rendimentos empresariais pode restar prejudicado, ainda há muito o que ser discutido e examinado. Isso porque a economia global, assentada em uma intensa mobilidade de riquezas, evidencia a crescente diversificação das formas de organização empresarial, de modo que a regulação necessária a atender as peculiaridades atinentes a cada modalidade negocial demanda um exame aprofundado e contínuo. Nesse cenário, a clara definição e perfeita compreensão do relevante conceito do estabelecimento permanente, bem como a delimitação dos critérios indispensáveis à sua aplicação, têm cardeal relevância para as modernas relações comerciais. Tal relevância decorre do papel que atribuímos ao estabelecimento permanente neste trabalho, por reputálo enquanto elemento de conexão objetivo, eleito por excelência pelos tratados para evitar a dupla tributação no tocante aos itens de rendimentos empresariais em geral. Tomando como paradigma o modelo de convenção elaborada pela Organização de Cooperação e de Desenvolvimento Econômico, e somando a este os influxos do modelo produzido pela Organização das Nações Unidas, será possível traçar um conceito multifacetado de estabelecimento permanente, com base em determinados critérios classificatórios. Fundados em tais categorias, conduziremos o exame das convenções internacionais firmadas pelo Brasil e analisaremos como os enunciados veiculados por tais instrumentos devem ser operados face ao ordenamento doméstico brasileiro. Com efeito, a tese ora apresentada buscará municiar seus leitores dos instrumentos conceituais necessários para que o conceito de estabelecimento permanente seja aplicado de forma efetiva e coerente com as práticas internacionais. Almeja-se, com isso, traçar algumas propostas para solucionar o afã despertado por problemáticas fiscais suscitadas no bojo do Direito Internacional Tributário, no intuito de contribuir em favor da adoção pelo Brasil de postura mais condizente com os anseios da comunidade internacional. / The scope of this study is to analyze and reconstruct the foundations that outline the emblematic figure of permanent establishments. Although the international doctrine and case law have made great effort to provide such expression with a uniform concept - without which the legitimate exercise of the jurisdiction to tax business income could be impaired - there is still much to be discussed and examined. The global economy, which is based upon intense wealth mobility, attests the increasing diversification of entrepreneurial organization forms, in such a way that proper regulation requires a profound and continuous analysis, in order to meet the needs of the peculiarities of each business modality. Within this context, the clear definition and complete comprehension of this relevant concept (that of permanent establishments), as well as the delimitation of the criteria necessary to its proper application, are of the utmost importance for the modern commercial relations. Such importance derives from the role attributed to the permanent establishment in this essay, considered as an objective connecting factor elected by the double tax treaties in connection with business profits. Using the Model Convention of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development as a paradigm, and adding the input from the model elaborated by the United Nations, it will be possible to draw a multifaceted concept of permanent establishment, based upon some specific classificatory aspects. Such categories are the grounds for promoting a survey of the international conventions entered into by Brazil, as well as an analysis on how the norms enacted under such vehicles shall be operated in view of the Brazilian domestic law. In fact, the present thesis aims at providing readers with the necessary conceptual instruments to apply the concept of permanent establishment effectively and coherently with the international law practice. With that, this study elaborates on proposals to solve some tax problems emerged within the framework of the International Tax Law, with the purpose of contributing for the adoption of an approach by Brazil which is more consistent with the aspiration of the international community.

Currently, although we are not jeopardized by global conflicts, but when the threat of chemical or biological attack, especially from the side of some of terrorist groups or a belligerent state, is still real, it is necessary to use all possible available measures for the conservation of global security against conventional weapons and weapons of mass destruction. The aim of this thesis is the following: To analyze texts of both stated Conventions and thus to get a consolidated view on the issue of biological and chemical weapons from the legislative point of view. To obtain, on the basis of the analysis and systematic comparison of particular provisions, an overview of identical and different elements in both Conventions. On the basis of results of the mutual comparison of particular provisions of both Conventions, to assess, according to their versions, meaning and extent, the influence on performance of both Conventions. After meeting these objectives it was possible to provide an answer to the stated research question: Are the measures formulated in international Conventions on the Prohibition of Biological and Chemical weapons sufficient in their importance, versions and extent, including the effective control? For the purpose of this thesis, theoretical part is focused especially on defining biological and chemical weapons and effective warfare agents. Furthermore, in order to obtain the idea of the importance of existence of international Conventions on the Prohibition of Biological and Chemical Weapons there is given a brief history of the use of these weapons in armed conflicts and a history accompanying negotiations regarding their prohibition. For completeness, the current state of biological and chemical weapons and compliance with both Conventions are given in conclusion. Second part of the thesis is devoted to the analysis and comparison of texts of both Conventions, so objectives of the thesis could be achieved and the research question could be answered. Stated objectives were achieved with the assistance of methods of the qualitative research. After detailed analysis of both texts and systematic assessment of individual measures contained in them, there were detected especially the range and overall text of each Convention. Subsequently, identical and different articles were mutually compared in order to observe the differences, which could have an impact on the performance of both conventions. After overall review of compliances and differences, and after the assessment of the scale, version and meaning of particular different provisions, the research question could be answered, and at the same time basic recommendations, whose importance may represent means to more efficient implementation of individual provisions of Conventions, could be defined. On the basis of results of comparison of particular provisions of both Conventions, in response to the research question it is necessary to state, that actions formulated in CWC, including its Annexes, appear to be sufficient for compliance with arising obligations. While measures contained in BWC, in particular in terms of the absence of any control measures, which could be used as an effective feedback regarding the implementation of provisions of the Convention, optionality to declare information on activities unrestricted by the Convention and inaccurate definition of components seem to be insufficient in its version, extent and meaning for this purpose. Essential reformation regarding the implementation of the objectives of BWC would be adoption of a complex of control measures according to the design of CWC, which has major impact on the objectives of the Convention. Proposed completion of existing articles, in case of which the change in wording would extend the scope of their versions and increase the emphasis on some areas of contained provisions for more efficient implementation of the Convention, may be also beneficial.

Perçue au départ comme un phénomène marginal, la corruption est apparue comme un phénomène endémique au point de fragiliser les fondements de la démocratie d'une part, et d'autre part d'engendrer des pertes économiques considérables pour la société. Face à ce fléau, certaines organisations internationales et européennes notamment l'Organisation de coopération et de développement économique (OCDE), l'Union européenne, le Conseil de l'Europe et l'Organisation des Nations unies se sont mobilisées en adoptant des conventions visant à lutter contre la corruption. Ce mouvement de lutte s'est poursuivi avec la participation de l'autorité judiciaire et de la société civile. Enfin, les États parties à ces conventions se sont joints également au mouvement en intégrant dans leur droit interne ces instruments de lutte contre la corruption. Intégration en droit interne, cependant, qui peut différer d'un État à un autre d'où une mobilisation variable. Malgré tout, le mécanisme de suivi sur la mise en œuvre des conventions anti-corruption, propres à certaines conventions de lutte contre la corruption, tente d'amoindrir cette variabilité. / Initially regarded as a marginal phenomenon, corruption appeared as an endemic phenomenon at the point to weaken the foundations of the democracy on the one hand, and to generate considerable economic losses to society on the other hand.Faced with this plague, some European and international organizations including the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the European Union, the Council of Europe and the United Nations organization were mobilized by adopting conventions to fight against corruption. This movement of fight has continued with the participation of the judicial authority and the civil society. Finally, States parties to these conventions also joined the movement by integrating into their domestic law these instruments of fight against corruption. Integration in internal law, however, which can differ from one state to another from where variable mobilization. Despite of everything, the mechanism of follow-up on the implementation of anti-corruption conventions, specific to certain conventions of fight against corruption tries to reduce this variability.

With 2011 womens movement in Turkey has a new tool for combating violence against women in their hands / Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, a.k.a. the Istanbul Convention. The Convention will add several new tools to the ones used by the womens movement in Turkey since 1980s.

Le transport maritime, étant un levier du commerce international, traduit l’expansion du domaine de la commercialisation maritime des biens et services. Ce type de commerce existe depuis des siècles mais il connait un nouvel essor du fait de la mondialisation économique. Le transit par la mer concerne 80% à 90% en tonnage des marchandises échangées dans le monde, autrement dit cette économie représente les 4/5 de l'ensemble de l’économie planétaire. De ce fait, cette problématique implique une approche théorique et pratique, nationale, certes, mais aussi internationale par l’intérêt de comparaisons avec d'autres pays à vocation maritime dans un contexte qui ne cesse d'évoluer aux plans économique, technique, commercial ainsi que juridique. Cependant, nombre de questions soulevées avec acuité pour mieux cerner le monde du transport maritime avec l'ensemble des entreprises qui le forment, des services qui s'y rattachent, des moyens et systèmes qui lui sont propres pour effectuer les échanges permanents à travers le monde, participent à la réglementation juridique au vu d’une meilleure régulation socio-économique. En effet, face aux bouleversements phénoménaux liés à ce domaine, cette thématique dessine un cadre comparatif en matière de gestion portuaire, des instances juridiques qui opèrent pour le bon déroulement des lois applicables et des différentes conventions liées au transport maritime. Toutefois, la place du Sénégal en la matière nécessite un travail à la fois théorique et pratique afin de prendre en compte la juste importance du transport maritime à travers une analyse de la situation dans la région et au Sénégal ainsi que d’engager des perspectives pouvant conditionner l’amélioration du secteur. / Maritime transport, a support of international trade, expresses the expansion of the field of maritime marketing of goods and services. This type of marketing exists centuries ago but it knows a revival because of economic globalization. Maritime transit concerns 80 to 90 percent in tonnage from exchanged goods in the world, in others words, that economy represents the four – fifths of the whole global economy. Therefore, that problematic implies both a theoretical and pratical approach, certainly national but also international by the interest of comparing with other maritime countries in a context which is continually evolving n economic, technical, commercial and legal levels. However, many questions raised with acuity to better define the world of maritime transport with the companies that compose it, services related to it, its own means and systems to carry out permanent exchanges around the world, contribute to the legal regulation in view of a better socio-economic control. In fact, considering the phenomenal upheavals linked with the field, this theme draws a comparative framework regarding port management, judicial instances that work for the smooth progress of applicable laws and different conventions related to maritime transport. However, Senegal’s position on the subject needs both a theoretical and pratical work in order to take into account the fair importance of maritime transport through an analysis of the situation in the region and in Senegal, then undertake perspectives that may lead to the improvement of the sector.

The following article attempts to address the problem, from the point of view of the labour law, which arises on the interpretation of standards on the basis of an analysis of sources, both internal sources such as international. Whereupon, the author advocates maintain the essence of the protective principle of labour law which will lead to combining rules from different sources to protect both the worker as the structure institutional and legal of the domestic law of each country. / El presente artículo intenta abordar la problemática, desde el punto de vista del derecho laboral, que se presenta en torno a la interpretación de normas laborales partiendo de un análisis de fuentes, ya sea tanto fuente interna como internacional. Con lo cual, el autor aboga por mantener la esencia del principio protector del derecho laboral lo cual llevará a conjugar normas de las diferentes fuentes para proteger tanto al trabajador como a la estructura institucional y legal del derecho interno de cada país.

Les conventions internationales de droit uniforme du commerce international ont pour but d'adopter un ensemble de règles qui soient communes et directement applicables aux rapports juridiques existant entre les différentes parties à un contrat commercial international. L'uniformité de ces conventions peut cependant être rompue en raison d'interprétations divergentes dont certaines de leurs dispositions font l'objet de la part des différents juges nationaux. C'est en particulier le cas des dispositions relatives à la faute qualifiée dans les conventions internationales de droit uniforme relatives au contrat de transport. Pour réduire les divergences d'interprétation en ce domaine, il a été proposé de changer la formulation de cette faute qualifiée qui après avoir été formulée au moyen d'un standard, l'a donc été au moyen d'une définition. Cette thèse s'est dans un premier temps intéressée à l'étude des résultats obtenus en matière d'uniformité d'interprétation de cette faute qualifiée sous l'empire du standard, puis sous celui de la définition. Cela a permis de mettre en évidence le fait qu'au-delà de la rédaction de la faute qualifiée au moyen d'un standard ou d'une définition, les divergences d'interprétation apparaissaient ou pouvaient apparaître à cause notamment de divers éléments perturbateurs qui ont été identifiés et au sujet desquels un premier niveau de propositions de solutions a été fait. Cependant, ces propositions de solutions, qui consistent globalement à adopter une interprétation en tenant compte des divers éléments perturbateurs de l'uniformité de l'interprétation qui ont été identifiés, doivent être mise en œuvre au moyen de mécanismes dont la création est nécessaire. C'est ce que cette thèse a proposé dans un deuxième temps.En effet, ces mécanismes ont pour objet la délivrance de recommandations interprétatives aux sujet des dispositions conventionnelles faisant l'objet, au moins potentiellement, de divergences d'interprétation. Ces recommandations sont à destination des juridictions des Etats parties aux conventions concernées et bénéficient d'un statut sui generis qui justifie qu'elles soient prises en compte par le juge. Si c'est la faute qualifiée dans les conventions internationales de droit uniforme relatives au contrat de transport qui a servi de support et de fil conducteur pour cette étude, les éléments de solution proposés ont toutefois vocation à s'appliquer, selon le même schéma, dans d'autres domaines que celui du droit des transports, régis par des conventions internationales de droit uniforme du commerce international. / The purpose of international conventions of uniform international trade law is to adopt a set of rules that are common and directly applicable to the legal relationship between the parties to an international commercial contract. The uniformity of these conventions can, however, be broken by divergent interpretations of which some of their provisions are the subject of the various national judges. This is particularly the case of the provisions relating to misconduct described in the international conventions of uniform law relating to the contract of carriage. In order to reduce differences of interpretation in this area, it has been proposed to change the wording of this qualified fault which, after having been formulated by means of a standard, has thus been made by means of a definition. This thesis was at first interested in the study of the results obtained in terms of uniformity of interpretation of this qualified fault under the influence of the standard, then under that of the definition. This made it possible to highlight the fact that beyond the drafting of the qualified fault by means of a standard or a definition, the divergences of interpretation appeared or could appear because of various disruptive elements which have been identified and for which a first level of proposals for solutions has been made. However, these proposals for solutions, which generally consist in adopting an interpretation taking into account the various disruptive elements of uniformity of interpretation that have been identified, must be implemented through mechanisms that are necessary to create. This is what this thesis proposed in a second step. The purpose of these mechanisms is to issue interpretative recommendations on conventional provisions that are the subject of at least potentially divergent interpretations. These recommendations are addressed to the courts of the States Parties to the conventions concerned and enjoy a sui generis status which justifies them being taken into account by the judge.If it is the misconduct described in the international agreements of uniform law relating to the contract of carriage which served as support and guideline for this study, the proposed elements of solution are however intended to apply, according to the same scheme, in other fields than transport law, governed by international conventions of uniform international trade law.

The function of a journalist is not only to inform but also to investigate. Since the public has a right to information, jurists need to protect journalists that report from dangerous war-torn regions in order to keep the world informed. As the primary reliable source and often eyewitness to humanitarian atrocities a journalist has a duty to report such atrocities. There has for several decades now been uncertainty regarding the fact whether journalists should be granted special protection or not. On the one hand it is argued that journalists should be protected in terms of humanitarian law due to their humanitarian function, the service that they render in facilitating the free flow of information to the world and the role that journalists play in society. On the other hand, some argue that the protection of journalists is not the responsibility of the international community but rather their individual national governments or local news organisations. / Jurisprudence / LL.M.