Background: The HIV epidemic is a serious public health concern globally. There are 1,692,242 million known non-citizens in South Africa; this is equivalent to 3.3% of the total South African population (Statistics South Africa [STATS SA], 2011) this reflects global trends relating to number of non-citizens living in foreign countries (Vearey, 2008). Migration is an important demographic process to consider when studying HIV transmission as it increases migrants’ susceptibility to HIV (International Organisation for Migration [IOM], 2010). International migration, which is the movement of people across international borders, can result in migrants finding themselves in spaces of vulnerability which may lead to risky sexual behaviour (IOM, 2010). Furthermore, access to healthcare may be limited due to the dynamics of living in a foreign country. Internal migration, defined as the movement of people within the borders of a country (IOM, 2010) may result in ‘intra-urban’ inequalities that inhibit access to basic services such as housing and healthcare (Nunez et al, 2011). Despite it being the smallest province in the country, Gauteng has the highest level of in-migration, with an estimated net inflow of 367 100 internal migrants as for the period 2006–2011 (STATS SA, 2011). Globally, international migrants are more seriously considered as a concern for HIV transmission. However, in South Africa, internal migrants are equally as concerning particularly due to their circular migratory patterns. Knowledge of one’s status is a crucial first step in management of HIV. Voluntary HIV testing remains a challenging aspect of public health interventions, especially amongst key populations such as migrants (WHO, 2010). Although numerous studies have been conducted around migration and HIV, there remained a need for an investigation into the factors that influence HIV testing among Johannesburg residents. This is particularly significant, given the rapidly increasing levels of migration into the city, as well as the high urban HIV prevalence, which has been found to be twice high as that in rural areas and highest within urban informal settlements (Vearey, 2010). Therefore, this study set out to examine factors associated with HIV testing among residents of Johannesburg, in an attempt to determine whether migration status matters or not. Methods: This is a quantitative study with a sample size of 487 Johannesburg residents. International (n=150) and internal migrants (n=293) were examined in relation to each other and a comparative group of Johannesburg natives (n=44). STATA version 11 was utilised to conduct secondary data analysis of the RENEWAL survey (2008). This data, which was collected using a cross-sectional study design, was acquired from the African Centre for Migration and Society (ACMS) at the University of the Witwatersrand. Univariate descriptive analysis, bivariate chi-squared test and multivariate, logistic regression models were employed. Results: Levels of HIV testing were found to be higher amongst internal migrants (56%) when compared to international migrants (42%), (x2(1) =0.62; Pr=0.004). There was only a slight difference between Johannesburg natives and internal migrants who reported a 55% chance of HIV testing (x2(2) =8.32; Pr=0.016).These findings were only significant at the bivariate level. Overall, factors that were significantly associated with HIV testing amongst residents are: sex (95% CI 2.01 to 4.88; p=0.000); type of residence (95% CI 0.29 to 0.76; p=0.003); knows where to locate a testing facility (95% CI 1.41 to 3.50; p=0.001) and knows that anti-retroviral treatment (ART) is free (95% CI 1.93 to 4.83; p=0.000). Income was significantly associated with HIV testing amongst migrants (95% CI 0.40 to 0.90, p=0.016). Females were three times more likely (3.14) to test for HIV when compared to males. The odds of getting an HIV test by those who resided in informal settlements were less (0.48) when comparing with those who stay in formal housing. Residents who knew where to locate a HIV testing facility were twice (2.22) as likely to get tested for HIV as compared to those who did not know where to find one. Residents who knew that ART is free were three times as likely (3.05) to get tested for HIV as compared to those who did not. Those who were not earning a salary were less likely (0.61) to get tested for HIV compared to those who were earning a salary. Conclusion: The fact that migrant status, that is -internal versus international migration as a variable is not significant against HIV testing at the multivariate level indicates that there are far more important mediating factors that determine HIV testing than migration. More importantly, a more detailed and focused exploration into the length of stay of migrants in the city as well as the effect of urban inequalities on health, is needed.

There has been excellent academic research, not only on diaspora, but also on postconflict Bosnia and Herzegovina in regards to transitional justice and peacebuilding. However, the factors that play a role vis-à-vis diaspora mobilization and transitional justice have been explored less. Theorizing has been ad hoc. Thus, the guiding question of this thesis is: How do diaspora utilize the political environments in their hostlands when they mobilize towards issues of transitional justice, in what ways and why? I develop a typological theory of diaspora mobilization, focusing on transitional justice claims, to systematize understanding and to develop midrange level explanations. Four types of diaspora mobilization (engaged, involved, reactive, and inactive) are theorized based on three independent variables: citizenship regimes, collective claims, and the presence or absence of ‘translocalism’ within diaspora communities. In particular, the more open citizenship regimes are, the higher the potential for diaspora mobilization will be. The thesis builds on the idea of translocal communities being an important factor in helping to determine the level of diaspora mobilization, along with the presence of collective claims in relation to transitional justice processes in the post-conflict homeland environment. The study is based on a qualitative research design using a unique two-level comparative lens, focusing on three countries in Europe (Sweden, France, and Germany) as well as four different cities within Bosnia and Herzegovina (Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Prijedor, and Srebrenica). The research methods include semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and process tracing with multi-sited fieldwork. Thus, transnational, translocal, host country, and homeland influences are incorporated into analysis. The study provides comparative rigor to research on diaspora mobilization that is particular and rare. It establishes diaspora as an important actor to consider in transitional justice based efforts and provides a new perspective on the idea of translocalism.

This study addresses how the UK and the Swedish Iraqi diaspora mobilised towards state-building in Iraq following the 2003 US led intervention. It explores why some diaspora mobilised towards state-building processes through institution-building and governance while others through civil society. While the literature has explored diasporic development and peace-building, it has not systematically addressed diaspora mobilisation for state-building. Neither has it paid sufficient attention to the factors that shape diasporic political choices in intervention and conflict settings. My thesis contributes to this body of literature and argues that an overlooked dimension of state-building, is that of civil society. State-building involves top-down approaches of institution-building but also bottom-up approaches of participatory politics that encourage democratic practices. I thus develop a new two-category operationalization of state-building to capture the interventions and transnational fields of different diaspora groups and individuals. My findings show that during different time periods, three factors have shaped the mobilisation of the UK and Swedish Iraqi diaspora towards state-building; diaspora profiles, hostland foreign policies towards the homeland and links to homeland political parties in Iraq. Theoretically these findings demonstrate that diaspora's socio-economic profiles and networks are key to understanding the type of politics that diaspora can engage in. Meanwhile, hostland foreign policies can shape diasporic interventions by creating different relationships with homelands and thus different opportunities for engagement. Furthermore, in divided societies, diaspora connected to homeland political parties, or represented by them, are more likely to be involved in the apparatus of the state, where as those excluded are more likely to engage outside the structures of power through civil society. Finally, my study demonstrates that temporal vii dimensions are crucial for understanding, which factors mattered, when and why. Empirically, this thesis also contributes original knowledge about the UK and Swedish Iraqi diaspora. It sheds new light into the myriad ways that diaspora in these two countries have been attempting to rebuild the country after the 2003 intervention by illustrating their efforts and experiences, and how it has informed their current relationship to Iraq.

This study analyses transnationalism across the borders of Brazil and Paraguay. In particular, my interest regards the everyday practices and representation of Brasiguaios, a term commonly used to refer to those living in the Brazilian and Paraguayan border region. Whilst the well-established field of transnationalism usually focuses on processes forged by immigrants settled in a country geographically distant from their country of origin, this research demonstrates how migrants living in geographical proximity to their country of origin, as well as non-migrants living within a border region of their country engage in intense forms of transnationalism. The research for this thesis adopted multi-sited ethnography by living with and observing individuals in two distinct locations. The first location was the landless camp Antônio Irmão, known as the Brasiguaios landless camp, in the town of Itaquiraí, also in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul. Most of its residents are Brazilian migrant returnees from Paraguay. The second location was the joint Brazilian towns of Ponta Porã, in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, in Brazil, and the Paraguayan town of Pedro Juan Caballero. Although most individuals living in these towns are not migrants, they are engaged in transnationalism. The two main distinct features of this study are the development of proximal transnationalism, a concept that explains the short forms of transnationalism within border regions; and the understanding that there are multiple representations of Brasiguaios. Thus, it is not possible to speak of a single, unique Brasiguaio identity. This thesis makes an academic contribution by its use of multi-sited ethnography to bring together the disciplines of transnationalism and border studies to show how everyday life and identities, framed within two nation-states that have increasingly affected the lives of individuals, are manifested in a border region of two countries, at the same time, seemingly disregarding the existence of the state.

The topic for this thesis is the package of policies referred to as “Co-development”. Co-development or Cooperation for Development comprises the actions of formal institutions at the national and regional levels as well as those of non-governmental organisations which are designed to stem immigration by fostering development in the source-country. The thesis examines co-development by comparing the migratory regimes in the European-Mediterranean Partnership and the North American Free Trade Agreement areas, focusing on Spain and the United States as host countries, Mexico, and Morocco as primarily sending - but increasingly transit and host - countries. The starting point for the thesis are the two trade oriented development programmes under way in each region - the MEDA Programme in Morocco and the Plan Puebla Panamá in Mexico-Central America. The thesis critically examines the “development-migration” nexus, particularly conventional ways of analysing the relationship between migration and development, and the way in which these models inform official policies for trade and development. The comparison draws upon a Multi-level Governance analytical framework which examines the interaction of state and non-state actors at the three main levels (Macro, Meso, and Micro) where Co-development takes places. The analysis of the multi-level interaction allows understanding the vertical or horisontal interrelation among actors in the process of co-development. Moreover, it allows a fuller understanding of the contribution of “bottom up” as much as “top down” co-development. Within this framework, the migrant emerges as a central actor - a transnational agent who is able to foster co-development by comparison with many national and international programmes.

The acculturation process is an important part of the experience that immigrant children and their families go through when adapting to live in a new country. Most studies on acculturation have included immigrant groups – mainly adults – living in North America and Europe. This thesis seeks to redress that imbalance by focussing on the acculturation attitudes and well-being of children and adolescents both in Chile and the United Kingdom (UK). A further important aspect is to examine how the discrepancies in acculturation within the family relate to children's well-being and family relationships. In this thesis, a bi-dimensional approach (both desire for culture maintenance and culture adoption/desire for contact with other groups) is used to test various hypotheses about the relationship between acculturation orientations - children's, parents' and discrepancies between the children and parents - and well-being of children. Several features characterise the research: two different receiving contexts (UK and Chile); different national origins of participants (with immigrant background and non-immigrant background); use of cross-sectional, longitudinal and qualitative methods; use of both perceived parent and actual parent scores; and the presence of social mediators and moderators (e.g., perceived discrimination, perceived peer acceptance, perceived school climate and perceived family relationship). The main findings were that, both in UK and Chile, immigrant children showed preference for maintenance of their heritage culture (CM) and establishing contact with receiving groups (DC) (or adopting the receiving culture (CA)), and that this preference was related to better well-being than other options, both concurrently and longitudinally. The acculturation discrepancies between children and parents had different consequences on well-being if they were on CM, CA or DC, depending on the measure used to calculate the discrepancies and also for immigrant and non-immigrant children. The findings are discussed in relation to the existing literature, and implications are drawn for improving psychological adjustment of immigrants and for future research that is needed.

Third Culture Kids are the children of people working outside their passport countries, and who are employed by international organisations as development experts, diplomats, missionaries, journalists, international NGO and humanitarian aid workers, or UN representatives. The “third culture” they possess is the temporary, nomadic multicultural space they inhabited as children, within an expatriate community and, in some cases, international school. This culture is distinct from their parents’ homeland culture (the first culture) and from that of the country in which they spend their formative years but of which they are not native members (the second culture). The “third culture” inhabited by Third Culture Kids does not unite the first and second cultures, but rather comprises a space for their unstable integration (Knörr, 2005). This thesis explores the following question: In what ways does being a Third Culture Kid affect notions of belonging, identity and place? Through analysis of both fieldwork in an international school, and exploratory life story interviews with adult TCKs from myriad backgrounds, this work contributes to a better understanding of the experience of growing up abroad, and tracks the long term effects of this experience on the ways in which TCKs orient themselves towards belonging, identity and place. Throughout the course of this research, findings coalesce to orient TCKs as cosmopolitans, rooted in the expatriate communities of their childhoods, continuing in mobility and self-conscious “otherness” into adulthood, and moving through place as “elite vagrants”.

Much current literature on women and migration tends to approach the study of migrant domestic workers as victims of global capitalism—or according to Parrenas’s evocative phrase as “servants of globalization”—from one of two vantage points. The first vantage point focuses attention on how the conditions of exit in various sending countries make overseas domestic servitude one of the few employment opportunities available for many women (Parrenas 2001). The second draws attention to the ways in which these migrant women experience stratification—along the lines of gender, race, and class—as part of their settlement experiences in their host countries (Pratt 1998). Both of these vantage points reinforce aspects of the “servants of globalization” discourse in that they pay relatively little attention to the coping practices of migrant domestic workers. In order to extend the thesis beyond the “servants of globalization” discourse, this thesis examines the coping practices that migrant Filipina domestic workers develop in their efforts to create communities of affirmation, care, and belonging.

Much current literature on women and migration tends to approach the study of migrant domestic workers as victims of global capitalism—or according to Parrenas’s evocative phrase as “servants of globalization”—from one of two vantage points. The first vantage point focuses attention on how the conditions of exit in various sending countries make overseas domestic servitude one of the few employment opportunities available for many women (Parrenas 2001). The second draws attention to the ways in which these migrant women experience stratification—along the lines of gender, race, and class—as part of their settlement experiences in their host countries (Pratt 1998). Both of these vantage points reinforce aspects of the “servants of globalization” discourse in that they pay relatively little attention to the coping practices of migrant domestic workers. In order to extend the thesis beyond the “servants of globalization” discourse, this thesis examines the coping practices that migrant Filipina domestic workers develop in their efforts to create communities of affirmation, care, and belonging.

The global nursing shortage created opportunities for registered nurses from less developed countries to improve their working and living conditions through migration to more progressive and affluent nations. In the Philippines, this phenomenon left the country devoid of the much needed health care professionals. In this research study, I described the lived experiences of eleven indigenous Filipino nurses who migrated to the United States. Through the phenomenology approach, I was able to probe into the meaning of the migration as the participants lived through it, approaching it from a humanist perspective and using Abraham Maslow's theory on the hierarchy of needs as the framework. The study was intended to illustrate how the economic, social, and political characteristics of both countries impacted the Filipino nurses' behavior and thought processes while in pursuit of personal goals. Ultimately, this study could be used as a guide in the development of employment and health care policies that are more responsive to the current state of the nursing profession.