Investigators have shown that elephants exhibit consistent individual differences in behavior by rating elephants using personality adjectives. These adjectives, however, are not based on pre-defined measurements of the behaviors performed. Instead, they are based on the observers’ interpretations of an animal’s behavioral patterns, therefore making them subject to observer bias. Furthermore, elephants have a capacity for learning; thus, they may alter their behavioral patterns over time. This behavioral plasticity in itself might be a way of measuring consistent behavioral differences among individuals. With this in mind, I approached elephant personality as a multivariate problem. I used behavioral observations collected from female elephants in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Instead of grouping behaviors into subjective categories prior to analysis (as is often done in studies of elephant behavior), I used ordination methods to determine which correlations among behaviors were important for defining personality. Ordination methods were performed on matrices of the behavior data set and on subsets of behaviors for each age class. I calculated the angular differences among major axes of covariation from the ordinations of subsets to determine if the behaviors that defined personalities differed by age class. I also defined personalities by centroids (in multidimensional space) for non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) scores of each individual and dispersion of NMDS scores for each individual as a measure of behavioral plasticity. I analyzed the effects of plasticity and age on personality of individual elephants using a non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Major axes of covariation were not well defined and therefore not useful in describing differences among groups. The interaction of age and behavioral plasticity did have a significant effect on the personalities of individuals as defined by ordination centroid scores. This suggests that incorporating plasticity may be a helpful measurement in quantifying consistent behavioral differences among individuals.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI), often called concussion, has become a growing public health concern, prevalent in both athletic and military settings. In response, many researchers have explored cognitive outcomes post-mTBI, with a plethora of meta-analyses summarizing these findings; however, these meta-analyses examine solely mean performances on cognitive tasks, ignoring intra-individual variability (IIV) in cognitive performance that may elucidate neuropsychological impairment following mTBI. The current thesis involved two studies, responding to both the growing meta-analytic research and limited IIV findings. Study 1: Many meta-analyses have amalgamated individual study results on post-mTBI neuropsychological outcomes. With the abundance of meta-analyses, a systematic review of meta-analyses stands as the next logical step. Method: A systematic literature search yielded 11 meta-analyses meeting inclusion criteria (i.e., English-language systematic reviews/meta-analyses covering post-mTBI observational cognitive research on late adolescents/adults), with their findings qualitatively synthesized based on moderator variables (i.e., cognitive domain, time since injury, past head injury, participant characteristics, comparison group, assessment technique, and persistent symptoms). Results: The overall effect sizes ranged for both general (range: .07-.61) and sports-related mTBI (range: .40-.81) and differed both between and within cognitive domains, with executive functions appearing most sensitive to multiple mTBI. Cognitive domains varied in recovery rates, but overall recovery occurred by 90 days post-injury for most individuals and by seven days post-injury for athletes. Greater age/education and male gender produced smaller effects sizes, while high school athletes suffered the largest deficits post-mTBI. Control-group comparisons yielded larger effects than within-person designs, while assessment techniques had limited moderating effects. Conclusions: Overall, meta-analytic review quality remained low with few studies assessing publication or study quality bias. Meta-analyses consistently identified adverse acute mTBI-related effects and fairly rapid symptom resolution. Study 2: The long-term outcomes of executive functions and IIV following mTBI are unclear due to inconsistent and limited research, respectively. Further, the relationship between physical activity (PA) and cognitive performance at young adulthood remains almost fully unexplored. In turn, the current study aimed to (a) assess the diagnostic utility of both executive functions and IIV at predicting mTBI history and (b) evaluate the interaction between PA levels and mTBI on both of these cognitive metrics. Method: Altogether 138 self-identified athletes (Mage = 19.9 ± 1.91 years, 60.8% female, 19.6% 1 mTBI, 18.1% 2+ mTBIs) completed three executive-related cognitive tasks (i.e., N-Back, Go/No-go, Local-Global). Ordinal logistic regression analyses examined the joint effect of person-mean and IIV as predictors of mTBI status. Multi-level models examined mTBI and PA levels as predictors of trial-to-trial changes in performance. Results: Only mean response time (RT) for the Local-Global task predicted mTBI status, while no IIV variables reached unique significance. PA levels predicted subtle within-task decreases in RT across Local-Global trials. Conclusions: IIV research on mTBI remains limited; however, the preliminary results do not indicate any additional predictive value of IIV indices above mean performances. For executive functions, shifting appeared most affected, with past researchers identifying post-mTBI impairment in attentional processing. Higher PA levels minutely benefited within-task shifting and mean inhibitory performance, although these finding require cautious interpretation. / Graduate / 0622 / jkarr@uvic.ca

Introdução: O diagnóstico das disfunções da tuba auditiva é essencial para o melhor entendimento da patogênese da otite média crônica. Estão descritos, na literatura, uma série de testes que avaliam a função tubária, entretanto, entre eles, há uma diversidade metodológica que varia desde os protocolos de aplicação até a padronização dos testes e seus resultados. Objetivo: Avaliar a variação da pressão na orelha média em pacientes com retração da membrana timpânica e em indivíduos normais, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária, bem como avaliar a variação intraindividual desses testes. Este estudo também tem por objetivo avaliar o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica na orelha contralateral, durante a realização dos testes. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal e contemporâneo, onde o fator em estudo foi a variação de pressão na orelha média, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária (Manobra de Valsalva, Sniff Test, Manobra de Toynbee) em indivíduos normais e em pacientes com retrações timpânicas leves e moderadas/severas. Foram incluídos 38 pacientes, totalizando 76 orelhas. Os pacientes foram submetidos, em dois momentos diferentes, aos testes de função tubária para determinar a medida da pressão após cada manobra. Durante a realização dos testes, videotoscopia era realizada concomitantemente na outra orelha, a fim de se observar a movimentação da membrana timpânica. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio do programa SPSS versão 18.0, em que foram considerados como estatisticamente significativos os valores de p< 0,05. Resultados: A média ± desvio-padrão da idade foi de 11 ± 2,72 anos; 55,3% dos pacientes foram do sexo masculino e 44,7% do sexo feminino. A prevalência de curva A foi maior nos grupos de orelhas normais e retrações leves, enquanto que de curva C foi maior no grupo de retrações moderadas/severas. Observamos aumento das pressões na orelha média durante a realização da Manobra de Valsalva no primeiro momento de avaliação nos três grupos de orelhas (p= 0,012). A variação da pressão não foi significativa nem para o Sniff Test, nem para o Toynbee nos dois momentos de avaliação (p≥0,05). A concordância das medidas nos dois diferentes momentos foi de fraca a moderada para os testes nos três grupos de orelhas, e as variâncias da discrepância entre as medidas foram maiores nas orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. Apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística, o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. Conclusão: Na população estudada, a média das pressões na cavidade timpânica apresentou uma variação significativa somente durante a Manobra de Valsalva, no primeiro momento de avaliação, nos três grupos de orelhas. As orelhas normais e as com retração leve se comportaram de forma semelhante entre si em todos os testes. As manobras utilizadas apresentaram uma variação intraindividual de fraca a moderada, sendo que maior variação ocorreu em orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. O número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. / Introduction: The diagnosis of Eustachian tube dysfunctions is essential for better understanding the pathogenesis of chronic otitis media. The literature describes a series of tests to assess tube function; however, there is methodological diversity between them, which varies from application protocols to standardization of tests and their results. Objective: To evaluate the variation in middle ear pressure in patients with tympanic membrane retraction and in normal subjects during tube function tests, as well as to evaluate intra-individual variation between these tests. This study also aimed to evaluate the number of tympanic membrane movements of the contralateral ear during the tests. Methods: An observational contemporary cross-sectional study was conducted, in which the factor under study was the variation in middle ear pressure during tube function tests (Valsalva maneuver, Sniff Test, Toynbee maneuver) in normal subjects and in patients with mild and moderate/severe tympanic retraction. A total of 38 patients (76 ears) were included in the study. Patients underwent tube function tests at two different time points, in order to determine the measure of pressure after each maneuver. During the tests, videotoscopy was performed concomitantly in the contralateral ear, in order to observe tympanic membrane movement. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 18.0, considering p values < 0.05 as statistically significant. Results: Mean ± standard deviation for age was 11 ± 2.72 years; 55.3% of patients were male and 44.7% female. The prevalence of type A tympanogram was higher in the groups with normal ears and mild retraction, while type C tympanogram was higher in the group with moderate/severe retraction. An increase in middle ear pressure was observed during Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears (p= 0.012). The variation in pressure was not significant either for the Sniff Test or for Toynbee maneuver at the two time points evaluated (p≥0.05). The agreement of the measures at the two different time points was from weak to moderate for the tests in the tree groups of ears, and the variations in discrepancy between measures were higher in ears with moderate/severe retraction. Although it had not reached statistical significance, the number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the tree groups of ears. Conclusion: In this study population, mean pressure in the middle ear showed a significant variation only during the Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears. Normal ears and those with mild retraction behaved similarly in all tests. The maneuvers used showed intra-individual variation from weak to moderate, with the higher variation occurring in ears with moderate/severe retraction. The number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the three groups of ears.

Introdução: O diagnóstico das disfunções da tuba auditiva é essencial para o melhor entendimento da patogênese da otite média crônica. Estão descritos, na literatura, uma série de testes que avaliam a função tubária, entretanto, entre eles, há uma diversidade metodológica que varia desde os protocolos de aplicação até a padronização dos testes e seus resultados. Objetivo: Avaliar a variação da pressão na orelha média em pacientes com retração da membrana timpânica e em indivíduos normais, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária, bem como avaliar a variação intraindividual desses testes. Este estudo também tem por objetivo avaliar o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica na orelha contralateral, durante a realização dos testes. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal e contemporâneo, onde o fator em estudo foi a variação de pressão na orelha média, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária (Manobra de Valsalva, Sniff Test, Manobra de Toynbee) em indivíduos normais e em pacientes com retrações timpânicas leves e moderadas/severas. Foram incluídos 38 pacientes, totalizando 76 orelhas. Os pacientes foram submetidos, em dois momentos diferentes, aos testes de função tubária para determinar a medida da pressão após cada manobra. Durante a realização dos testes, videotoscopia era realizada concomitantemente na outra orelha, a fim de se observar a movimentação da membrana timpânica. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio do programa SPSS versão 18.0, em que foram considerados como estatisticamente significativos os valores de p< 0,05. Resultados: A média ± desvio-padrão da idade foi de 11 ± 2,72 anos; 55,3% dos pacientes foram do sexo masculino e 44,7% do sexo feminino. A prevalência de curva A foi maior nos grupos de orelhas normais e retrações leves, enquanto que de curva C foi maior no grupo de retrações moderadas/severas. Observamos aumento das pressões na orelha média durante a realização da Manobra de Valsalva no primeiro momento de avaliação nos três grupos de orelhas (p= 0,012). A variação da pressão não foi significativa nem para o Sniff Test, nem para o Toynbee nos dois momentos de avaliação (p≥0,05). A concordância das medidas nos dois diferentes momentos foi de fraca a moderada para os testes nos três grupos de orelhas, e as variâncias da discrepância entre as medidas foram maiores nas orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. Apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística, o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. Conclusão: Na população estudada, a média das pressões na cavidade timpânica apresentou uma variação significativa somente durante a Manobra de Valsalva, no primeiro momento de avaliação, nos três grupos de orelhas. As orelhas normais e as com retração leve se comportaram de forma semelhante entre si em todos os testes. As manobras utilizadas apresentaram uma variação intraindividual de fraca a moderada, sendo que maior variação ocorreu em orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. O número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. / Introduction: The diagnosis of Eustachian tube dysfunctions is essential for better understanding the pathogenesis of chronic otitis media. The literature describes a series of tests to assess tube function; however, there is methodological diversity between them, which varies from application protocols to standardization of tests and their results. Objective: To evaluate the variation in middle ear pressure in patients with tympanic membrane retraction and in normal subjects during tube function tests, as well as to evaluate intra-individual variation between these tests. This study also aimed to evaluate the number of tympanic membrane movements of the contralateral ear during the tests. Methods: An observational contemporary cross-sectional study was conducted, in which the factor under study was the variation in middle ear pressure during tube function tests (Valsalva maneuver, Sniff Test, Toynbee maneuver) in normal subjects and in patients with mild and moderate/severe tympanic retraction. A total of 38 patients (76 ears) were included in the study. Patients underwent tube function tests at two different time points, in order to determine the measure of pressure after each maneuver. During the tests, videotoscopy was performed concomitantly in the contralateral ear, in order to observe tympanic membrane movement. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 18.0, considering p values < 0.05 as statistically significant. Results: Mean ± standard deviation for age was 11 ± 2.72 years; 55.3% of patients were male and 44.7% female. The prevalence of type A tympanogram was higher in the groups with normal ears and mild retraction, while type C tympanogram was higher in the group with moderate/severe retraction. An increase in middle ear pressure was observed during Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears (p= 0.012). The variation in pressure was not significant either for the Sniff Test or for Toynbee maneuver at the two time points evaluated (p≥0.05). The agreement of the measures at the two different time points was from weak to moderate for the tests in the tree groups of ears, and the variations in discrepancy between measures were higher in ears with moderate/severe retraction. Although it had not reached statistical significance, the number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the tree groups of ears. Conclusion: In this study population, mean pressure in the middle ear showed a significant variation only during the Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears. Normal ears and those with mild retraction behaved similarly in all tests. The maneuvers used showed intra-individual variation from weak to moderate, with the higher variation occurring in ears with moderate/severe retraction. The number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the three groups of ears.

Introdução: O diagnóstico das disfunções da tuba auditiva é essencial para o melhor entendimento da patogênese da otite média crônica. Estão descritos, na literatura, uma série de testes que avaliam a função tubária, entretanto, entre eles, há uma diversidade metodológica que varia desde os protocolos de aplicação até a padronização dos testes e seus resultados. Objetivo: Avaliar a variação da pressão na orelha média em pacientes com retração da membrana timpânica e em indivíduos normais, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária, bem como avaliar a variação intraindividual desses testes. Este estudo também tem por objetivo avaliar o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica na orelha contralateral, durante a realização dos testes. Métodos: Estudo observacional do tipo transversal e contemporâneo, onde o fator em estudo foi a variação de pressão na orelha média, durante a realização dos testes de função tubária (Manobra de Valsalva, Sniff Test, Manobra de Toynbee) em indivíduos normais e em pacientes com retrações timpânicas leves e moderadas/severas. Foram incluídos 38 pacientes, totalizando 76 orelhas. Os pacientes foram submetidos, em dois momentos diferentes, aos testes de função tubária para determinar a medida da pressão após cada manobra. Durante a realização dos testes, videotoscopia era realizada concomitantemente na outra orelha, a fim de se observar a movimentação da membrana timpânica. A análise estatística foi realizada por meio do programa SPSS versão 18.0, em que foram considerados como estatisticamente significativos os valores de p< 0,05. Resultados: A média ± desvio-padrão da idade foi de 11 ± 2,72 anos; 55,3% dos pacientes foram do sexo masculino e 44,7% do sexo feminino. A prevalência de curva A foi maior nos grupos de orelhas normais e retrações leves, enquanto que de curva C foi maior no grupo de retrações moderadas/severas. Observamos aumento das pressões na orelha média durante a realização da Manobra de Valsalva no primeiro momento de avaliação nos três grupos de orelhas (p= 0,012). A variação da pressão não foi significativa nem para o Sniff Test, nem para o Toynbee nos dois momentos de avaliação (p≥0,05). A concordância das medidas nos dois diferentes momentos foi de fraca a moderada para os testes nos três grupos de orelhas, e as variâncias da discrepância entre as medidas foram maiores nas orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. Apesar de não ter atingido significância estatística, o número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. Conclusão: Na população estudada, a média das pressões na cavidade timpânica apresentou uma variação significativa somente durante a Manobra de Valsalva, no primeiro momento de avaliação, nos três grupos de orelhas. As orelhas normais e as com retração leve se comportaram de forma semelhante entre si em todos os testes. As manobras utilizadas apresentaram uma variação intraindividual de fraca a moderada, sendo que maior variação ocorreu em orelhas com retrações moderadas/severas. O número de movimentações da membrana timpânica foi maior durante a manobra de Valsalva nos três grupos de orelhas. / Introduction: The diagnosis of Eustachian tube dysfunctions is essential for better understanding the pathogenesis of chronic otitis media. The literature describes a series of tests to assess tube function; however, there is methodological diversity between them, which varies from application protocols to standardization of tests and their results. Objective: To evaluate the variation in middle ear pressure in patients with tympanic membrane retraction and in normal subjects during tube function tests, as well as to evaluate intra-individual variation between these tests. This study also aimed to evaluate the number of tympanic membrane movements of the contralateral ear during the tests. Methods: An observational contemporary cross-sectional study was conducted, in which the factor under study was the variation in middle ear pressure during tube function tests (Valsalva maneuver, Sniff Test, Toynbee maneuver) in normal subjects and in patients with mild and moderate/severe tympanic retraction. A total of 38 patients (76 ears) were included in the study. Patients underwent tube function tests at two different time points, in order to determine the measure of pressure after each maneuver. During the tests, videotoscopy was performed concomitantly in the contralateral ear, in order to observe tympanic membrane movement. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 18.0, considering p values < 0.05 as statistically significant. Results: Mean ± standard deviation for age was 11 ± 2.72 years; 55.3% of patients were male and 44.7% female. The prevalence of type A tympanogram was higher in the groups with normal ears and mild retraction, while type C tympanogram was higher in the group with moderate/severe retraction. An increase in middle ear pressure was observed during Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears (p= 0.012). The variation in pressure was not significant either for the Sniff Test or for Toynbee maneuver at the two time points evaluated (p≥0.05). The agreement of the measures at the two different time points was from weak to moderate for the tests in the tree groups of ears, and the variations in discrepancy between measures were higher in ears with moderate/severe retraction. Although it had not reached statistical significance, the number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the tree groups of ears. Conclusion: In this study population, mean pressure in the middle ear showed a significant variation only during the Valsalva maneuver at the first time point evaluated in the three groups of ears. Normal ears and those with mild retraction behaved similarly in all tests. The maneuvers used showed intra-individual variation from weak to moderate, with the higher variation occurring in ears with moderate/severe retraction. The number of tympanic membrane movements was higher during the Valsalva maneuver in the three groups of ears.

L’ouvrage souhaite apporter des clarifications et des définitions à propos des artistes évoluant dans les cabarets toulousains. L’objectif est de détecter les « processus de légitimation » que ceux-ci mettent en oeuvre afin d’asseoir leur légitimité, sociale, culturelle, familiale, artistique, professionnelle. Couronnés d’une aura de mystère de par leur statut de travailleur, leur mode de vie, leur emploi du temps, leurs rites et codes, leur organisation en réseaux, leurs cercles sociaux et leurs carrières atypiques, le sens commun aurait tendance à les étiqueter de « particuliers », « différents », « bohêmes », etc. Ainsi, en partant de préjugés et de stéréotypes dominants, on peut se poser la question de la manière dont ces artistes de music-hall légitiment leurs activités, leur statut par rapport aux autres arts, mais surtout, comment réussissent-ils à exporter leur légitimité dans leurs autres sphères relationnelles. L’hypothèse étant que la légitimité des artistes de cabaret toulousains n’est pas acquise ni assurée en tous milieux.Il s’agit également d’évaluer la légitimité culturelle dans le domaine des arts de ce groupe d’artistes professionnels composant le spectacle vivant. En effet, quelle est donc leur place dans la hiérarchie des arts, au regard d’un milieu de l’art se révélant structuré par des conflits de valeurs ? En se basant, entre autre, sur le principe des variations intra-individuelles, le débat discutera de la « démocratie culturelle » et des hiérarchies de valeurs culturelles, révélant la légitimité des « arts du divertissement ».Une enquête ethnosociologique où le chercheur est impliqué sur le terrain, visant à rendre compte des préoccupations sociales, telles qu’elles sont vécues dans le quotidien. / This work wants to bring definitions and clarifications about the artists working in the cabarets of Toulouse. In order to discern the “processes of legitimization” the artists struggle to assert their social, cultural, artistic, professional legitimacy.Due to the mystery which floats around these workers’ status, their way of life, their timetable, their rituals and codes, their organization in networks, their social circles and their atypical careers, people have a tendency to put the label of “particular”, “different”, “bohemian” on them. So, on the basis of the prejudices and on the predominant stereotypes, we can wonder how these artists of music-hall can justify their activities, their status in comparison with the order arts and especially how they succeed in exporting their legitimacy in other relational spheres. The hypothesis shows that the legitimacy of the artists of the cabaret in Toulouse is neither acquired nor assured in any circles.It is also a question of assessing the cultural legitimacy of this group among the other arts. These professional artists propose shows in live and we can wonder what place they have in the hierarchy of art, noticing that arts turned out to be structured by conflicts of values. Based on the principle of intra-individual variations, we can debate about “Cultural Democracy” and the hierarchies of cultural values, and so reveal the legitimacy of “the arts of entertainment”.This work is an ethnosociological survey, in which the researcher is involved in, and he denounces the social problems he experiences in his daily life.

As zoos and aquariums have become increasingly focused on conservation education, their menageries of unique and diverse learning opportunities have been underutilized. Through a new postsecondary-level animal behavior laboratory experience at an aquarium (“ZooU”), this study demonstrates that active learning pedagogy aligned with the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) could facilitate expansion of education at zoos and aquariums beyond their conservation education niche. Generally, students indicated that ZooU provided new opportunities for them to explore their own interests, demonstrate their learning, and augment their previous laboratory and aquarium experiences. Following both self- and researcher assessments of the students’ work, integrated analyses revealed that students who engaged in more active learning activities at the aquarium demonstrated a greater increase in skills aligned with the NGSS. Additionally, a novel intra-individual analysis was utilized to embrace the variation between learners that typically confounds the results of education studies with repeated measures design. Common challenges for education at zoos and aquariums are discussed through the context of ZooU as a foundation for future investigations. A practical NGSS-aligned guide to field trips at zoos and aquariums—written specifically for science teachers—is also included to support broader utilization of zoos and aquariums as educational resources.

Personality is one of the most broad and complex areas in psychology. This has led to many researchers attempting to reduce this complexity by focusing solely on how habitual personality differs between each individual (inter-individual differences). This is important to study, but it has been focused on so heavily that research into how each individual personality varies within the person (intra-individual differences) has been neglected in comparison. Recent research has started to examine intra-individual variation in personality more thoroughly. One research aim of this programme was to establish the nature of several different types of within person variability including inter-item variation (variation within the test responses for a personality trait), and cross-contextual variation in personality (variation according to context), to see whether these types of variability are associated with psychological outcomes. Three research questions were examined to this end: 1) What is the extent of meaningful variability in personality trait test responding? 2) What are the predictors of intra-individual variability in personality? 3) What is the relative importance of the person and situational factors in personality variability? The first question was developed to try and determine whether the individual can display meaningful inter-item variation in ratings of specific behaviours within personality trait measures. Trait questionnaires are usually only analysed at the between subject level, and within subject variation in inter-item ratings have not been extensively examined in relation to meaningful psychological outcomes. The second and third questions were developed to look into the nature of cross-contextual personality, and establish whether within person personality differences are influenced more strongly by the person or situation. The studies conducted towards answering these questions demonstrated a person-based capacity to display intra-individual variability. A second aim of the research programme was to see whether the capacity to display these types of variability can be utilised in behaviour change. The fourth research question was developed to try and understand how a person can display intra-individual variability, yet still be resistant to changing negative habits: 4) How do the different aspects in personality variability help explain why some people are resistant to change, especially with regard to behaviours that are bad for them? This question was answered by theoretically discussing the findings from the three previous studies which proposed that positive or problematic behaviour could be interpreted with a simple path to understand the process of behavioural action: The individual receives feedback from a behaviour response which either validates or invalidates their action in the situation context (does or does not receive a desired outcome). Reinforcement of the behaviour happens if it is validated by positive feedback. Alternately reconstruction of the situation happens if the behaviour is invalidated. This allows for two types of intra-individual variability. One is flexibility in behaviour responses to different situations under the individual’s control. The other is change according to the situation, where the behaviour is invalidated and an alternative is attempted. A problematic behaviour may have benefit in stopping something invalidating, but if repeated it may become a habit needed for psychological functioning. As part of the second research aim a behaviour change strategy was developed and piloted to try and bring the individual closer to their construct of the ideal self. Instructions were provided for the individual to experiment with that differed from their disposition. The programmes had varied degrees of success depending on the participant. The implications for personality research and behaviour change are discussed.

Establishing a chronology of variation in isotopic values can reveal frailty associated with biological and social age, as well as highlight individuals who vary from typical patterns. Although general dietary characteristics and infant feeding practices were previously unknown for subadults excavated from the cemetery at Alytus, Lithuania (14th-18th centuries), previous research concludes that Alytus' subadults experienced high rates of physiological, metabolic, non-specific stress, in addition to specific diseases like tuberculosis. To investigate nuanced relationships between diet and mortality, nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes from the femoral and humeral midshaft diaphyses of 70 subadults (32 weeks gestation to16 years) were analyzed. Dietary reconstruction reveals that on average, exclusive breastfeeding continued until around 2 years of age when enriched ?13C (-19.6‰) and ?15N values (12.7‰) begin to deplete suggesting introduction of C3 grain gruels and potential weaning-associated infirmity. Nitrogen values remained slightly elevated in children (3-5 years, 11.2‰) until the beginning of juvenility (5-8 years, 10.3‰) when ?15N more closely mirrored adult values (16 years, 10.2‰), consistent with predominant consumption of terrestrial animal protein, possibly with riverine influence. The difference between femoral to humeral ? F-H 13C (-0.05 ±0.25‰, 1?) and ? F-H 15N (- 0.01±0.45‰, 1?) was not significant, though humeral values were on average more enriched. Enrichments in humeral nitrogen and carbon coincided with estimated weaning age. Cohorts experiencing childhood and adolescent growth spurts experienced higher femoral ?13C and ?15N values. Examining dietary experience and physiological changes contributes a holistic understanding of subadult morbidity and mortality experiences in Medieval Lithuania.

In risk assessment of risk chemicals, variability in susceptibility in the population is an important aspect. The health hazard of a pollutant is related to the internal exposure to the chemical, i.e. the target dose, rather than the external exposure. The target dose may be calculated by physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. Furthermore, variability in target dose may be estimated by introducing variability in the physiological, anatomical, and biochemical parameters of the model. Data on these toxicokinetic model parameters may be found in the scientific literature. Since the early seventies, a large number of experimental inhalation studies of the kinetics of several volatiles in human volunteers have been performed at the National Institute for Working Life in Solna. To this day, only very limited analyses of these extensive data have been performed. A Bayesian analysis makes it possible to merge a priori knowledge from the literature with the information in experimental data. If combined with population PBPK modeling, the Bayesian approach may yield posterior estimates of the toxicokinetic parameters for each subject, as well as for the population. One way of producing these estimates is by so-called Markov-chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation. The aim of the thesis was to apply the MCMC technique on previously published experimental data. Another objective was to assess the reliability of PBPK models in general by the combination of the extensive data and Bayesian population techniques. The population kinetics of methyl chloride, dichloromethane, toluene and styrene were assessed. The calibrated model for dichloromethane was used to predict cancer risk in a simulated Swedish population. In some cases, the respiratory uptake of volatiles was found to be lower than predicted from reference values on alveolar ventilation. The perfusion of fat tissue was found to be a complex process that needs special attention in PBPK modeling. These results provide a significant contribution to the field of PBPK modeling of risk chemicals. Appropriate statistical treatment of uncertainty and variability may increase confidence in model results and ultimately contribute to an improved scientific basis for the estimation of occupational health risks.