The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify the perceptions African American female principals hold regarding the challenges and opportunities they experienced when seeking and holding administrative positions in a K-12 public school setting. The interview protocol contained open-ended questions and was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with six participants. Findings indicated that when seeking the principalship, African American women inspired to become principals, obtained the required credentials through district-sponsored cohorts and university programs, were knowledgeable of the required skills, felt mentors and networking were most helpful in obtaining a principalship, and noted that as they served as principals, they took advantage of opportunities to serve their school community. They reported that as they sought and served as principals, stereotypes about African American women were unique challenges and their experiences, opportunities, and challenges were different than those of their peers. Implications from the study indicate school district leaders can encourage African American women to pursue the principalship by promoting positive relationships with other administrators and supervisors, developing mentorships, and promoting district-sponsored programs. District leaders must also maintain awareness and combat the stereotypes faced by African American women as they seek and hold administrative positions. / Doctor of Education / The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify the perceptions African American female principals hold regarding the challenges and opportunities they experienced when seeking and holding administrative positions in a K-12 public school setting. The target population was six African American female principals serving in elementary, middle, and high school settings with differing levels of administrative experience, diversity, and socioeconomic status. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the purpose of uncovering and capturing the perspectives of African American female principals as they seek and serve in the principalship. The analysis of participants' experiences provides a lens district leaders can use to recognize the opportunities of African American female leadership and to address and dismantle the challenges African American female leaders face as they seek and serve in the principalship. Results of the data analysis showed the African American female principals perceived that district-sponsored licensure cohort programs and mentorships were the most helpful in obtaining a principalship and they took advantage of the opportunities as they served in the principalship. Negative stereotypes about African American women were a challenge and they perceived there were differences in seeking and holding the principalship in comparison to their peers. Findings from this study indicate more research is needed on the perspectives of African American female principals as they seek and serve in the principalship in K-12 public schools.

民國99年5月19日公布施行之「刑事妥速審判法」有禁止檢察官對無罪案件上訴之規定，此項立法類似學理上所稱之「不對稱上訴（asymmetric appeal）」。不對稱上訴為英、美等國家刑事訴訟的一項重要制度，在此刑事程序，被告受有罪判決者得提起上訴，而檢察官對無罪判決卻不得上訴。這種的不對稱上訴權，被認為是刑事訴訟保障被告的措施之一，但也使得刑事程序明顯有利於被告。事實上，美國的不對稱上訴制度，並非成文法所明定，而是從美國聯邦憲法第五修正案之雙重危險禁止條款，經過聯邦最高法院數十年的判例演進，逐漸形成而來。至於英國之不對稱上訴制度，先是普通法的「前已無罪判決(autrefois acquit, former acquittal)」抗辯所發展出來，再以成文法明文加以規定。本文將介紹美、英等國刑事不對稱上訴制度發展的經過暨內涵，。並歸納分析傳統上支持不對稱上訴之理由，尤其是不對稱上訴這種有利於被告之設計的基礎，即數個錯誤之無罪判決比一個錯誤之有罪判決所付出的社會成本低這個理念（寧可錯放數人，不可錯關一人）。最後將討論屬於大陸法系的我國，在刑事訴訟以特別立法限制檢察官對無罪案件上訴之妥適性。

Using the G8 countries’ (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States) samples from the 2003 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), this study aimed to explore the phenomenon of double jeopardy in mathematics achievement for socially disadvantaged students. Double jeopardy is a situation of dual penalties where coming from low socioeconomic status (SES) families and attending low SES schools results in concurrent penalties at both the student level and school level in mathematics achievement. This study examined the phenomenon of double jeopardy in the G8 countries across four school locations: rural regions, towns, cities, and metropolitan areas. This study also examined four separate definitions of socioeconomic status in order to determine the effectiveness of each definition. The four definitions corresponded to four SES measures utilized in this study: father’s SES, mother’s SES, family occupation SES, and combined family SES. Multilevel analysis with students nested within schools indicated that significant double jeopardy effects varied according to SES measure, school location, and country. However, the majority of the double jeopardy effects across all the variables were large in magnitude. Furthermore, the combined family SES and the metropolitan school location were often the most sensitive SES measure and school location, respectively, to double jeopardy in the G8 countries.

Higher education has been linked to upward mobility in recent decades. Higher education has particularly served as a road to upward mobility for disadvantaged racial and gender groups. While United States colleges and universities strive to make their institutions, programs, and departments more diverse, students who are racial minorities still experience racism and those who are women still experience sexism. Colleges and universities are often considered bastions of progressive liberalism that will challenge racism and sexism; however, the seeds of American racism and sexism that were planted at the country's inception and that were sustained by the blatant subjugation of people of color and women continue to generate race and sex based oppression within present-day American society and within America's academic institutions. Therefore, residual racism and sexism are important to explore, since their presence in educational institutions serves to reify racial and gender based boundaries in achievement and well-being. To this end, research has inadequately determined the prevalence of overt and covert oppression within academic institutions. Using a sample of college students at a predominately white institution in a Midwestern college town and a diverse institution in a large urban area I will: 1) examine the prevalence of covert and overt racist and sexist experiences among college students and develop models of their occurrence by gender and race; 2) test double jeopardy and multiple jeopardy theory by finding out if women of color experience more racism and sexism than other groups; 3) examine the prevalence of racist, post- racist, sexist and post-sexist beliefs among college students and develop models of their origins by race and gender, 4) examine how environmental context impacts student's experiences and beliefs by comparing college students at a predominately white institution and at a diverse institution; and 5) conduct a path analysis in order to test the causal relationships between demographic factors (race, gender and institution type), experiences (racist and sexist victimization) and attitudes/outlook (racist, post-racist, sexist, post-sexist, campus climate and stress).

Universiẗat, Diss., 2006--Marburg.

By implementing Albert O. Hirschman’s theory about reactions, the purpose of this thesis is to analyse the arguments against carbon offsetting presented in Swedish media. More specifically, I will structure and analyse the counter-arguments I find in the articles about carbon offsetting presented by the Swedish paper Dagens Nyheter between October 2019 and January 2020. Hirschman’s theory of the reactionary rhetoric is based on the notion that every social action is followed by a reaction. To illustrate this, Hirschman introduces three types of theses –arguments -deployed by those who oppose a new idea or reform. The three principal arguments Hirschman identifies is the futility thesis, the perversity thesis and the jeopardy thesis. The futility thesis suggests that an action aiming to improve the society in any way won’t have any effect, the perversity thesis claims that the action will result in the opposite outcome of what was intended and the jeopardy thesis implies that the action will result in intolerable consequences in other areas. Hirschman suggests that a debate where any of these theses are present both is a danger for democracy and is likely to result in suffering in other ways as well. In that way, his theory provides a tool for identifying dangerous arguments in order to take a step towards a more democracy friendly discussion. By analysing 85 arguments against carbon offsetting I find that 51 of them easily can be categorized as either one of the theses, while 22 can’t be categorized at all. The remaining 12 arguments can either partly or in full be placed in the model. The majority of the 51 arguments fitting in Hirschman’s model are futility theses, which implies that the Swedish debate in this area largely consists of arguments claiming that carbon offsetting doesn’t make any difference. My conclusion based on Hirschman’s theory and the analysis of the arguments is that the Swedish debate about carbon offsetting unarguably contains signs of the polarized discussion Hirschman claims to be a democratic danger and that both the debate itself and the climate overall probably would benefit from a more nuanced and balanced debate.

Vocational rehabilitation (VR) is a program that provides individualized and supportive services to assist individuals with disabilities in obtaining and maintaining employment compatible with their skills, abilities, and interests. Previous research has shown that people with disabilities are at risk for experiencing discrimination in multiple stages of the rehabilitation process. The primary purpose of this study was to explore if recommendations for hypothetical rehabilitation services by rehabilitation counseling students were influenced by (a) the consumer's race, (b) causal attribution of disability, (c) participant's race, and (d) the interaction of the counselor's race and consumer's race. A 2 x 2 x 3 Factorial design was utilized and results from this study revealed that recommendations for rehabilitation services were not influenced by the consumer's race, participant's race, or the interaction of the counselor's race and consumer's race. The findings did reveal that a hypothetical consumer who had an internal cause of disability was more likely to receive fewer recommendations for rehabilitation services then a consumer with an external cause. Discussion and implications are provided.

Thesis (doctoral)--Universität Bayreuth, 2004/05. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 421-438) and index.

I analysed individual perceptions of successful leadership, from a feminist intersectional persepctive. The study is based on previous research undertaken by Chamorro-Premuzic (2019), where successful leadership has been argued to be based on embodying the characteristics of ‘confidence’, ‘competence’, and ‘emotional intelligence’. This study also investigated whether comprehensions of successful leadership are gendered, and, if so, if the gendered perceptions may be related to the social organisation of care. Furthermore, as gender is always racialised and race is always gendered, this study takes an intersectional approach, analysing perceptions of successful leadership as both racialised and gendered. Based on this, I undertook a case study analysing the words of 11 women in the United States, in order to compare the perspectives of what successful leadership entails for certain individuals in particular, to general perceptions on successful leadership, as well across identity locations. By emphasising individual perspectives on successful leadership, this study allowed for an investigation into gendered and racialised notions regarding successful leadership.

Because of its mandate and its enforcement powers, the ICC has been hailed as a major advance on the road towards individual accountability for the perpetration of the most heinous violations of human rights (international crimes) and thus as a major contribution to the prevention of such horrible crimes. However, with its limited resources in terms of human and financial means, the ICC will not be able to deal with all perpetrators of the crimes that come under its jurisdiction wherever such crimes are committed throughout the world. For this reason, in order to end impunity in the commission of international crimes, there will always be a need for combined efforts by the ICC and national courts. This reality is recognised by the Rome Statute which, in the preamble and article 1 of the Statute, provides that the jurisdiction of the ICC is “complementary” to national courts and that, therefore, States Parties retain the primary responsibility for the repression of international crimes. In legal literature, this is generally referred to as the “principle of complementarity” or the “complementarity regime of the Rome Statute”. In order to give effect to the complementarity principle of the Rome Statute, South Africa passed the Implementation of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Act 27 of 2002 (hereafter the Implementation Act); which determines the modalities of prosecuting perpetrators of the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in South African courts. The Implementation Act also provides that South African courts will have jurisdiction over these crimes not only when they are committed on South African territory but also when they are committed outside the Republic, thus empowering South African courts to exercise “universal jurisdiction” over these three international crimes. This thesis examines the extent to which South African courts, acting under the complementarity regime of the Rome Statute are, or are not, allowed to exercise universal jurisdiction over international crimes committed in foreign States. The study is based on two assumptions. First, it is assumed that since under the principle of complementarity South African courts are required to do the same job as the ICC, they should have the same powers as those States Parties gave to the ICC when they adopted the Rome Statute. Secondly, it is assumed that, although having the same mandate as the ICC in terms of the complementarity principle, South African courts are nonetheless domestic courts as opposed to the ICC which is an international court and that, accordingly, the international law principle of State sovereignty may impose limitations on their ability to exercise universal jurisdiction over international crimes committed in foreign States. In the light of the above assumptions, this study investigates three issues. Firstly, do South African courts have the same powers as the ICC has to disregard immunities of foreign States’ officials which, under international customary law, attach to their functions or status? Secondly, are South African courts entitled, as the ICC is, to disregard amnesties granted by foreign States, either in the process of national reconciliation or as means to shield the criminals from prosecution by the ICC? Finally, are South African courts entitled, as the ICC is, to retry a case which has already been tried in a foreign country but with the aim of shielding the accused from criminal responsibility or where, for example, the sentence imposed was too lenient in comparison with the gravity of the crime? / PhD (Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014