Nous avons étudié l'impact d'un jet millimétrique sur un film de savon. Selon le nombre de Weber et l'angle incident du jet, nous avons montré que le jet peut soit passer au travers du film, soit être absorbé par le film. Dans le premier cas, le passage du jet au travers du film déforme ce dernier. Cette déformation absorbe une partie de l'énergie du jet qui est alors réfracté. Dans le second cas, le jet ne possède pas suffisamment de quantité de mouvement verticale pour traverser le film et est ondule alors sur ce dernier. Nous nous sommes ensuite intéressés à l'effet d'un champ électrique sur une goutte de Leidenfrost. Une méthode interférométrique nous a permis de connaître le profil en trois dimensions de l'interface liquide-vapeur située sous la goutte. Sans champ électrique, cette interface est concave. L'application d'un faible champ électrique attire la circonférence de cette interface vers le substrat. En appliquant un champ électrique plus intense, la goutte en caléfaction entre en contact avec le substrat. Un courant passe alors dans le système et la goutte se comporte comme une résistance à seuil. / We have studied the impact of a millimetric jet on a soap film. According to the Weber number and the incident angle of the jet, we have shown that the jet may either pass through the film or be absorbed by the film. In the first case, the jet passage through the film deforms the latter. This deformation absorbs a portion of the energy of the jet which is then refracted. In the second case, the jet does not have sufficient amount of vertical movement to pass through the film and he undulates on the film. We then investigated the effect of an electrical field on a Leidenfrost droplet. An interferometric method allowed us to know the three-dimensional profile of the liquid-vapor interface below the drop. Without electrical field, this interface is concave. The application of a low electrical field attracts the circumference of the interface to the substrate. By applying a more intense electrical field, the drop in calefaction comes in contact with the substrate. A current flows in the system and the drop behavior is like a threshold's resistor.

La pollution des eaux est une préoccupation majeure relayée par la Communauté Européenne. Cette problématique s'accentue avec les particules métalliques et l'émergence de produits nanostructurés tels les Nano-objets, leurs Agrégats et leurs Agglomérats (NOAA). Ces NOAA constituent un cas particulier de polluants du fait de leurs propriétés physicochimiques. La surveillance et le contrôle de ces polluants dans les eaux, nécessite le développement d'instruments de mesure aptes à répondre à ce fléau environnemental. Dans ce contexte, la technique de spectroscopie de plasma induit par laser ou Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) a été retenue à l'INERIS. Elle permet l'identification chimique élémentaire des polluants sous forme particulaire dans la matrice liquide et la détermination de leurs concentrations in-situ et en temps réel. Ce travail de thèse a permis d'optimiser l'analyse des suspensions par LIBS avec deux modes d'échantillonnage. La première partie de l'étude a porté sur le couplage LIBS avec un jet liquide et les limites de détection du titane ont été évaluées à 0.5 mg/L. Dans la deuxième partie, les suspensions ont été aérosolisées avec un nébuliseur et analysées par LIBS. Les résultats obtenus en comparant ces deux modes d'échantillonnage montrent que le jet liquide peut être avantageux pour l'analyse de particules dans les liquides. Cependant le mode aérosol présente un intérêt pratique à condition d'avoir un rendement d'aérosolisation supérieur à 50%. Au final, ce travail de thèse démontre l'applicabilité de la LIBS comme outil potentiel pour l'analyse in situ de particules dans les liquides telle que la surveillance et le contrôle des eaux usées / Water pollution is a major concern, as noted by the European Community. This problem is accentuated with metallic particles and the emergence of nanostructured products such as Nano-Objects, their Aggregates and their Agglomerates (NOAA). These are the special types of pollutants owing their physicochemical properties. The monitoring and control of these pollutants in water require the development of measurement instruments which are capable to anwer this environmental problem. In this context, the technique of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) has been developed at INERIS. It not only allows the chemical identification of these particles pollutants present in liquids, but also the determination of their concentrations in situ and in real time. This thesis has optimized the analysis of suspensions by LIBS with two sampling modes. The first mode focused on coupling LIBS with a liquid jet in which the detection limits of titanium dioxide were estimated at 0.5 mg/L. In the second mode, the suspensions were aerosolized with a nebulizer and analyzed by LIBS. The results obtained by comparing these two sampling modes show that the liquid jet may be advantageous for the analysis of suspensions. However, the aerosol mode has a practical interest if it has an aerosolization efficiency of over 50%. Finally, this work demonstrates the applicability of LIBS as a potential tool for in situ particle analysis of suspensions such as monitoring and control of wastewater

Le bois est un matériau à la fois naturel, renouvelable, recyclable et biodégradable. Cependant, malgré ses qualités, il présente, comme tout autre matériau, quelques inconvénients. Ce sujet de thèse porte sur une étude de faisabilité technologique d’enrichissement d’un substrat bois par des charges, aux propriétés physiques et chimiques données, incorporées par voie physique au moyen d’un procédé innovant qui est le procédé de jet d’azote à haute pression installé dans la plateforme expérimentale du CRITT-TJFU. L’innovation consiste à conférer aux particules des vitesses élevées (400-700 m/s) par la seule action de la pression hydrodynamique du flux d’azote, sans apport de chaleur. Les températures mises en jeu sont compatibles pour un usage sur bois sans altération des propriétés mécaniques et géométriques de la structure enrichie. Trois essences de bois (sapin, peuplier et hêtre) ont été traitées sous différentes conditions d’impact de deux types de particules (grenat et cuivre). Les caractérisations réalisées que ce soit par techniques d’imageries ou encore les caractérisations mécaniques, chimiques mais aussi microbiologiques ont montré que le bois traité par la technologie du jet d’azote acquière de nouvelles propriétés et s’enrichit par rapport à son état naturel / Wood is a material that is both natural, renewable, recyclable and biodegradable. However, despite its qualities, it presents, like any other material, some disadvantages. This PhD thesis deals with a technological feasibility study for the enrichment of a wood substrate by fillers, with specific physical and chemical properties, incorporated by physical means using an innovative process that is the nitrogen jet process at high pressure installed in the experimental platform of the CRITT-TJFU. The innovation consists in giving the particles high velocities (400-700 m/s) by the only action of the hydrodynamic pressure of the nitrogen flow, without any addition of heat. The temperatures are compatible for use on wood without altering the mechanical and geometrical properties of the enriched structure. Three types of wood (fir, poplar and beech) were treated under different impact conditions of two types of particles (garnet and copper). The characterizations carried out either by imaging techniques or even the mechanical, chemical but also microbiological characterizations have shown that wood treated by nitrogen jet technology acquires new properties and is enriched compared to its natural state

Os dispositivos emissores de luz orgânicos OLEDs têm despertado um enorme interesse tanto da comunidade científica quanto das empresas presentes no mercado mundial de displays. As características de elevado ângulo de visão, alta eficiência energética, possibilidade de confecção de displays flexíveis que não necessitam retroiluminação, baixo peso, fácil processabilidade, dentre outras, fazem com que os displays fabricados com materiais orgânicos apresentem um enorme potencial para as mais diversas aplicações. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo contribuir para a construção e caracterização de displays monocromáticos à base de polímeros luminescentes depositados pela técnica Ink Jet. Para tanto foram preparados os padrões de linhas x colunas, formadores dos pontos luminosos (pixels) de matrizes passivas e desenvolvidos processos para deposição dos filmes finos de polímeros semicondutores. A utilização da deposição por Ink Jet aparece como uma técnica chave para a produção de dispositivos poliméricos. Nesta pesquisa, como material luminescente foi utilizado um polímero da família do polifluoreno, de fácil processamento e elevada eficiência luminosa, enquanto que como eletrodos foram utilizados o óxido de estanho e índio (ITO) e Alumínio. O ITO foi utilizado por possuir baixa resistividade elétrica, elevada função de trabalho e elevada transmitância na região do visível. O processo de encapsulamento do display se deu por meio do acondicionamento destes dispositivos em ambiente isento de oxigênio e umidade, evitando-se os efeitos já conhecidos da foto-oxidação das camadas poliméricas. Os dispositivos, uma vez preparados, foram caracterizados por meio de medidas ópticas (fotoluminescência), elétricas (eletroluminescência, condutividade) e de desempenho (eficiência luminosa e luminância). / Organic Light Emitters Diodes OLEDs is a promising field of study and a huge market opportunity to semiconductor players. Thanks to its potential characteristics to replace the main todays display technologies like lightweight, low voltage, wide viewing angle, high resolution, fast switching, broad color range and the possibility to fabricate flexible devices, makes the organic semiconductors a potential candidate to develop, in a near future, devices and systems that even could not be imagined before. This work aims to contribute to the manufacturing process field and to the characterization of displays made by ink jet deposition technique. To achieve this objective, line x column patterns were produced, in which the pixels are generated at the crossing of lines and columns. The ink jet printing of materials is playing an important role in industry because it provides a low-cost manufacture environment potential. In this work, we studied the morphology of the ink jet deposition of polyfluorene over Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) substrates treated by different procedures. Those materials where used because the polyfluorene polymer presents high light emission efficiency and easiness of processing. The electrodes were prepared with ITO (due its low resistivity, high work function and high transmittance in the visible spectrum) and aluminum. The processed displays were sealed inside an inert ambient with positive pressure to avoid the photo-oxidation of the semiconductor luminescent polymer layers. The devices were characterized by optical (photoluminescence), electrical (electroluminescence) and performance (brightness, luminous efficiency) measurements.

Os dispositivos emissores de luz orgânicos OLEDs têm despertado um enorme interesse tanto da comunidade científica quanto das empresas presentes no mercado mundial de displays. As características de elevado ângulo de visão, alta eficiência energética, possibilidade de confecção de displays flexíveis que não necessitam retroiluminação, baixo peso, fácil processabilidade, dentre outras, fazem com que os displays fabricados com materiais orgânicos apresentem um enorme potencial para as mais diversas aplicações. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo contribuir para a construção e caracterização de displays monocromáticos à base de polímeros luminescentes depositados pela técnica Ink Jet. Para tanto foram preparados os padrões de linhas x colunas, formadores dos pontos luminosos (pixels) de matrizes passivas e desenvolvidos processos para deposição dos filmes finos de polímeros semicondutores. A utilização da deposição por Ink Jet aparece como uma técnica chave para a produção de dispositivos poliméricos. Nesta pesquisa, como material luminescente foi utilizado um polímero da família do polifluoreno, de fácil processamento e elevada eficiência luminosa, enquanto que como eletrodos foram utilizados o óxido de estanho e índio (ITO) e Alumínio. O ITO foi utilizado por possuir baixa resistividade elétrica, elevada função de trabalho e elevada transmitância na região do visível. O processo de encapsulamento do display se deu por meio do acondicionamento destes dispositivos em ambiente isento de oxigênio e umidade, evitando-se os efeitos já conhecidos da foto-oxidação das camadas poliméricas. Os dispositivos, uma vez preparados, foram caracterizados por meio de medidas ópticas (fotoluminescência), elétricas (eletroluminescência, condutividade) e de desempenho (eficiência luminosa e luminância). / Organic Light Emitters Diodes OLEDs is a promising field of study and a huge market opportunity to semiconductor players. Thanks to its potential characteristics to replace the main todays display technologies like lightweight, low voltage, wide viewing angle, high resolution, fast switching, broad color range and the possibility to fabricate flexible devices, makes the organic semiconductors a potential candidate to develop, in a near future, devices and systems that even could not be imagined before. This work aims to contribute to the manufacturing process field and to the characterization of displays made by ink jet deposition technique. To achieve this objective, line x column patterns were produced, in which the pixels are generated at the crossing of lines and columns. The ink jet printing of materials is playing an important role in industry because it provides a low-cost manufacture environment potential. In this work, we studied the morphology of the ink jet deposition of polyfluorene over Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) substrates treated by different procedures. Those materials where used because the polyfluorene polymer presents high light emission efficiency and easiness of processing. The electrodes were prepared with ITO (due its low resistivity, high work function and high transmittance in the visible spectrum) and aluminum. The processed displays were sealed inside an inert ambient with positive pressure to avoid the photo-oxidation of the semiconductor luminescent polymer layers. The devices were characterized by optical (photoluminescence), electrical (electroluminescence) and performance (brightness, luminous efficiency) measurements.

Dans certaines conditions, une baisse significative de la taille des gouttes se produit en émulsification membranaire avec vibrations transversales. Pour comprendre les mécanismes impliqués, nous avons développé deux dispositifs expérimentaux, dans lesquels une goutte unique est formée à travers un capillaire dans une phase externe, qui est soit stationnaire, soit en écoulement. Le capillaire peut être mis en vibration parallèlement à son axe.Lorsque la phase externe est stationnaire, au-delà d’une amplitude seuil de forçage, la taille des gouttes formées diminue significativement. La goutte entre en résonance quand sa fréquence propre coïncide avec la fréquence de forçage et elle se détache si elle atteint une élongation critique. La goutte est modélisée comme un oscillateur harmonique linéaire forcé. Un terme d’amortissement additionnel décrit la dissipation visqueuse entre la goutte et la surface du capillaire. Ce modèle prédit bien les amplitudes seuils et les diamètres de gouttes.Lorsque la phase externe s’écoule, nous avons étudié deux régimes de formation de gouttes, en goutte à goutte (dripping) ou à partir d’un jet (jetting). Expérimentalement, la transition du dripping au jetting se produit à un nombre de Weber interne seuil, dont la valeur dépend des nombres capillaire et d’Ohnesorge externes. Le jet se rétrécit (narrowing) ou s’élargit (widening) selon le rapport de vitesses des phases choisi. En dripping, les diamètres de gouttes sont bien prédits par un bilan des moments. En jetting, un modèle basé sur l’équation du mouvement permet d’estimer la vitesse critique permettant la transition au jetting et les diamètres de gouttes résultants. / In transversally vibrating membrane emulsification, significantly smaller drops are generated in certain conditions. We aim to explain the mechanisms involved. To do so, two experimental setups were developed. A single drop is formed from a nozzle into an outer phase, which is either stationary or cross-flowing. The nozzle can be submitted to axial vibrations.For a drop formed into a stationary phase, a transition in drop generation occurs above a critical forcing amplitude. Below the threshold, a large drop forms by dripping. Above the threshold, a drop detaches when its first eigenfrequency and the forcing frequency coincide. The drop then resonates and detaches once a critical elongation ratio is reached. We model a drop as a linearly forced harmonic oscillator and add an extra damping term to account for the viscous dissipation between the drop and nozzle surface. We well reproduce the threshold amplitudes and drop diameters.We also study drops generated into cross-flow. In dripping mode, drop diameters are described by a torque balance. At a critical inner Weber number function of the outer capillary and Ohnesorge numbers, a transition to jetting occurs. Jet widening or narrowing takes place depending on the phase velocity ratio. We propose a model to account for the transition to jetting based on the drop equation of motion. Overall, we adequately account for the jetting velocity and drop diameters, with discrepancies which were explained.

Cette thèse consiste en l’étude expérimentale de l’érosion d’un milieu granulaire horizontal par un jet vertical. Dans un premier temps, nous étudions finement le seuil d’érosion. L’injecteur est placé à une distance donnée de l’empilement, et la vitesse débitante du jet est progressivement augmentée jusqu’à l’observation du déplacement des premiers grains à la surface du sédiment. La variation de la distance pour la mesure du seuil conduit le jet à passer par différents régimes d’écoulement, notamment laminaire et turbulent. Une analyse est menée à partir des modèles auto-similaires des jets en régimes laminaire et turbulent, qui prévoient une décroissance de la vitesse axiale en fonction de la distance au point source de l’écoulement appelé origine virtuelle. Il est alors possible d’estimer la vitesse locale au niveau de l’empilement, ce qui permet de montrer que le mécanisme local d’érosion décrit par le nombre de Shields est inertiel et indépendant du régime du jet. Dans un second temps, nous menons une étude sur la morphologie des cratères formés au-delà du seuil d’érosion. A nombre de Shields inertiel croissant, le cratère passe d’une forme entièrement parabolique à une forme plus complexe, composée d’une partie parabolique invariante à l’aplomb du jet et d’une couronne avalancheuse de pente constante sur les flancs. Nous montrons que l’épaisseur de l’empilement n’a pas d’influence sur les caractéristiques des cratères tant que le jet n’atteint pas le support. Lorsque c’est le cas, nous observons alors une troisième forme de cratère composée d’une région centrale sans grains et conservant une partie avalancheuse sur les flancs, raccordée au support par une petite zone parabolique. Nous montrons enfin que les caractéristiques du cratère sont contrôlées par la distance jet-empilement et qu’il est nécessaire de tenir compte de l’écart du nombre de Shields à sa valeur seuil dans cette analyse en fonction de la distance. / The present thesis consists in the experimental study of the erosion of a horizontal granular bed by a vertical jet. In a first part we study in details the erosion threshold. With the injector fixed at a given distance from the granular surface, the mean jet velocity is gradually increased until the displacement of first grains at the bed surface. Depending on the jet-bed distance, different jet flow regimes are observed, from laminar to turbulent. Using self-similar jet models in either laminar or turbulent regimes, which predict the axial velocity decay as a function of the distance from a flow point source called virtual origin, the local velocity at the bed position is estimated, allowing us to show that the local erosion mechanism described by the Shields number is inertial and independent of the jet regime. In a second part, we study the shape of craters formed above erosion threshold. Increasing the Shields number, the crater goes from a shape entirely parabolic to a more complex one with an invariant parabolic region close to the jet axis and a constant avalanching slope further on the side. We show that the bed thickness has no influence on the crater characteristics as long as the jet does not reach the bottom wall. When it does, we observe a third shape for the crater composed of a central flat region without any grains connected to the avalanching crown on the side by a small parabolic crown. We show the crater characteristics are governed by the jet-bed distance and that it is necessary to take into account the difference between the Shields number and its threshold value in this distance analysis.

The Apollo Command Module had a tendency to flip over upon impact with the ocean surface after returning from space (9/19 times). In an effort to better characterize the inversion process for future water landing vehicles, experimental results for a simplified buoyant cylindrical puck impacting the water surface are presented. This study focuses on the dependence of inversion upon vertical velocity, horizontal velocity, and the pitch angle of the puck relative to the free surface. High-speed images reveal an asymmetric cavity that forms upon water impact. The asymmetric cavity then collapses, applying a moment, which can be sufficient to invert the puck after impact. Increasing the vertical velocity increases the likelihood of inversion. The puck never flipped over below a vertical velocity of 3.75 m/s. Increasing the horizontal velocity also slightly increases the likelihood of inversion. However, the largest effect of increasing horizontal velocity is to shift the range of impact angles for which the puck will invert to lower angles. The buoyant cylindrical puck used in this study requires a higher Froude number (4.34) to invert than previous geometries which have been studied.

This research investigation examines the thermal behaviour of single and arrays of fluid jets impinging at heated surfaces, and formulates enhancement schemes for the jet impingement heat transfer processes for high-intensity cooling applications. The proposed techniques are numerically modelled and analysed over a wide parametric range to identify flow characteristics leading to thermal enhancement and optimum performance. The first scheme applies to a single fluid jet and incorporates a protruding object at the impingement surface to improve heat transfer. In this, a conical protrusion of high thermal conductivity is attached to the heated surface directly beneath the jet. Three different aspect ratios of 0.5, 1 and 2 are investigated for the protrusion while the inclusion of a fillet at the base of the cone is also studied. Jet Reynolds numbers between 100 and 30,000 are modelled. The observed thermal performance is compared with a reference case having no surface attachment. With this arrangement, the heat transfer rate typically varies between 10 and 40 percent above the reference case although depending on certain parametric combinations, the heat transfer may increase above or decrease below the reference performance. The highest indicated increase in heat transfer is about 90 percent while 15 percent below is the lowest. Careful selection of cone surface profile creates potential for further thermal enhancement. / The second scheme applies to a single fluid jet and incorporates a recess in the impingement surface to improve heat transfer. In this, a cylindrical cavity is introduced to the surface beneath the jet into which the fluid jet impinges. The effects of the cavity on heat transfer are examined for a number of different cavity diameters, cavity depths and jet discharge heights wherein a surface without a cavity is taken as the reference surface. Cavity diameters of 2, 3 and 4 times the jet diameter are investigated at cavity depths between zero and 4 times the jet diameter. Jet discharge heights range between 2 jet diameters above the reference surface to 2 jet diameters below the reference surface. The jet Reynolds number is varied between 100 and 30,000. With this enhancement technique, increases in heat transfer rates of up to 45 percent are observed when compared to the reference performance. The thermal performance of fluid jet arrays is examined by altering square or hexagonal array configurations to identify flow characteristics leading to optimal heat transfer rates. For this, the jet to jet spacing is varied between 1.5 and 7 times the jet diameter while the jet to surface height is varied between 2 and 6 times the jet diameter. Jet Reynolds numbers between 100 and 30,000 are investigated. For each configuration, a critical jet-to-jet spacing is identified below which the heat transfer is observed to reduce significantly. Correlations for the expected heat transfer for a square or hexagonal array are presented in terms of the jet to jet spacing, jet height and jet Reynolds number.

An analytical dispersion model has been derived to determine the distribution of velocities and concentrations of a tracer in a two-dimensional jet in a coflowing ambient fluid. The particular novelty of this model is that it bridges the gap between near-field (where initial momentum dominates behaviour) and far-field (where ambient turbulence is more important) domains. We describe this domain as the ???intermediate field???. In a literature review of coflowing jets we find several laboratory studies and models which can predict the velocities (and in some cases concentrations) in a 2D jet, however they all have shortcomings. None could fully account for ambient turbulence, and all were strictly near-field, i.e. they are unable to describe behaviour when ambient turbulence dominates the initial shear. A brief review of analytical far-field models was also undertaken. There are standard solutions for the dispersion of a 2D continuous source but none that allow for an initial source momentum or non-uniform velocity. As opposed to the near-field coflow approach used by other researchers we start from the far-field, modifying the simple diffusion models by perturbing the governing equations to allow for the initial momentum. Models are developed for both along-stream velocity and the concentration field of a tracer. From the velocity model, a comparison is made with experimental data available from one researcher (Wang, 1996) and an existing near-field coflow model PJCMERG (Davidson, 1989). The initial conditions (width and excess velocity) for our model are determined by Gaussian curve fitting to an arbitrary point in the near-field. The diffusivity parameter is used to adjust (tune) the model until the centreline velocity profile matches. We can always achieve this match and to a much closer degree than PJCMERG. There are no available laboratory or field data for concentrations of a tracer in a 2D coflowing jet although the near-field model PJCMERG does have a tracer component. We demonstrate how PJCMERG cannot converge to any far-field model, while our model provides a neat transition between the near-field and far-field. We have started the extension of the 2D model to the more common 3D situation although we have yet to carry out any comparisons with other models or data. The model development is included in an appendix for other researchers to pick up.