Effects of herbivory, fire, and tree harvesting on Acacia drepanolobium were studied using plant population dynamics as the philosophical basis of research. Specifically, growth rates, chrono-sequence of re-growth, biomass and charcoal yield, herbivory, flowering, seed production, germination, mortality and the ants of Acacia drepanolobium were studied in the black cotton ecosystem of Mpala Research Centre, Laikipia, Kenya, between September 1995 and December 2000. Acacia drepanolobium was the most abundant tree or shrub with densities ranging from 80% to 98% of all the overstorey species, but it was the least browsed of all the trees and shrubs in the black cotton ecosystem, ranging from a mean of 7.2% to 9% of the individuals browsed. The tree is inhabited by four Acacia ant species, Crematogaster mimosae, Crematogaster sjoestedti, Crematogaster nigriceps, and Tetraponera penzigi, which are believed to be obligate, and which probably play a role in the low browsing rates observed. Six herbivore treatments replicated three times (no herbivores - O; only cattle - C, all herbivores allowed - MWC {control}, mega-herbivores {elephants and giraffe} and wildlife {W} – MW only, wildlife – W - only {all wildlife except mega-herbivores} and wildlife and cattle only - WC) was the main experimental design used in understanding the dynamics of the tree species under influence of different herbivores. Mean annual height growth of A. drepanolobium trees was 24.9 cm yr-1, while the mean Relative Growth Rates ranged from 14.6 x 10 –3 cm cm-1 yr-1 to 18.7 x 10 –3 cm cm-1 yr-1. Growth rates were different among the herbivore treatments and between seasons. Shoots of the tree grew by a mean range of 6.8 cm to 9.1 cm, were similar among the treatments but differed among the seasons. Canopy volume increased over time although it fluctuated with seasons, suggesting an increase in bushiness of A. drepanolobium in the ecosystem. Trees occupied by different ant species showed differences in shoot density (number of new shoots per twig), being greater in Crematogaster nigriceps occupied trees compared with the other ant species. Swollen thorn (gall) density per unit of twig length was greatest in treatments with megaherbivores; these galls were significantly larger on trees occupied by the ant Crematogaster nigriceps. Treatments with herbivores were more spinescent than the total exclusion treatment. Spine lengths ranged from 0.8 to 2.4 cm, and recorded a progressive reduction of up to 36.36.7% in treatments without browsers suggesting a relaxation of induced defence in A. drepanolobium. Flowering in A. drepanolobium was low and staggered over the study period ranging from 0.8% to 2.0% of the trees with no differences among the treatments suggesting that the level of herbivory was not sufficient to influence reproduction of the tree in the experimental site. Consequently, seedling recruitment was very low within the experimental site. However, a nearby site recorded flowering of between 22.7% and 93.5%. Mean pod production, mean number of seeds per tree and mean weight of pods and seeds had a positive linear relationship with tree density (R2=0.77, 0.81 and 0.81 respectively). Trees occupied by Crematogaster mimosae were the most likely to flower (68%) compared with C. nigriceps (5.8%), again suggesting that ants had an effect on the tree’s reproduction. Mortality of A. drepanolobium trees averaged 0.9% to 4.2% over the study period, being significantly greater in treatments with mega-herbivores. Seedling survival ranged from 42% to 75%, being greatest in the cattle only treatment. Between 30% and 100% (mean 67.2%), of A. drepanolobium seeds were attacked by a bruchid beetle (Bruchus sp.). Seeds attacked by bruchid beetles had significantly lower germination rates. Similarly, seeds passed through a fire also recoded significantly low germination rates compared with normal seeds. Fire (3.4%) and bruchid beetles (20.7%) germination compared with (control) undamaged seeds (84%) play an important role in the population dynamics of A. drepanolobium. Fewer A. drepanolobium seeds (33%) were recovered from the surface compared with buried (72%) seeds after a fire, indicating seed loss from the effect of fire and predation. In the burn experiment, fire top-killed 16% of A. drepanolobium trees but no tree or seedling was killed. On the other hand, fire significantly reduced the density of non-A. drepanolobium trees by between 50% and 100%, with none of them showing signs of coppicing after the fire unlike top-killed A. drepanolobium trees. Woody biomass from A. drepanolobium was strongly related to stem diameter (Y = 3.77x + 1.17, R2 = 0.96, P < 0.001). Mean charcoal production from earthen kilns was 2.83 Mg ha- 1. Height and stem diameter in coppicing stands increased at a mean rate of 28.6 cm yr-1 and 0.7 cm yr-1 respectively. Biomass in coppicing stands accumulated at a mean rate of 1.3 Mg ha-1 yr-1 in a 14-year period, yielding dry biomass of 18.26 Mg ha-1 useable wood that can produce a minimum of 3.0 Mg ha-1 of charcoal. This study shows that Acacia drepanolobium populations are affected by several factors including herbivory, fire and ants. The population dynamics of this tree shows that it can be harvested for sustainable charcoal yield over a 14-year cycle. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Herbivory is a key process that mediates the abundance of primary producers and community composition in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. On tropical coral reefs, changes in herbivory are often related to phase shifts between coral-dominance and dominance by seaweeds, or foliose macroalgae. Resilience or capacity to resist and reverse such phase shifts is, therefore, viewed as a critical function on coral reefs. This thesis used grazer exclusion and assay experiments at six sites within three different fisheries management regimes in Kenya to identify the impacts of herbivores (sea urchins and fishes) on algal dynamics in the context of coral reef resilience. First, I examined the grazing rates necessary to prevent phase shifts by quantifying consumption and algal production. Here, I found that, over a 390-day experiment, at least 50 percent of algal production must be consumed to avoid accumulation of algal biomass. Using video observations, I also showed that scraping parrotfishes remove more algae (per unit of fish biomass) than previously assumed, and that sea urchins, if released from predation, have similar impacts to fishes. Then I focused on algal succession, and found that sea urchins and fishes have different effects that are mediated by their abundances and species composition. Where sea urchins were less abundant and parrotfishes absent (e.g. young fisheries closures), progression of algae from turfs to early and then late successional macroalgae occurred rapidly and within 100 days. I then turned my focus to the removal of already established macroalgae (grown for > 1 yr in the absence of herbivores) and showed that sea urchins and browsing fishes were able to remove significant amounts of macroalgae where either herbivore was abundant. However, using multiple-choice selectivity assays and in situ video recordings, I found that browsing fishes fed very selectively with low overlap in diet among species, leading to low functional redundancy within a high diversity system. Finally, using long-term survey data (from 28 sites) to build a 43-year chronosequence, I showed that it is possible that the effects of herbivory will not be constant across transitions from open fishing to fishery closures through non-linear grazing intensity. Therefore, increases in herbivory within fisheries closures may not be immediate and may allow a window of opportunity for algae to go from turf to unpalatable macroalgae until scraping and browsing fishes fully recover from fishing (~ 20 years). The findings in this thesis are novel and raise concern over the potential implications of the slow recovery of parrotfishes or, given lower than expected functional redundancy in grazing effects, the absence of even one browsing fish species in fisheries closures. Overall, this thesis highlights the importance of herbivore community dynamics in mediating interactions among algae, and provides new insights for conservation and management actions that attempt to bolster the resilience of coral reefs.

The loss of habitat to agriculture is a worldwide problem for biodiversity conservation. One species that has seemingly been able to adapt to the conversion of forests to farmlands is Mackinder’s eagle owl (Bubo capensis mackinderi), which inhabits highland areas, but little is known of its ecology, especially outside of protected areas. This study examined the impact of agricultural practices and farmer’s attitudes on the foraging and population ecology of the Mackinder’s eagle owl in central Kenya. Owl territories were monitored monthly from June 2004- October 2006 for signs of occupancy, breeding activity, mortality and to collect data on food resources. Nest site characteristics were measured for all known nests. Because previous studies showed an affinity for rodents, small mammals were trapped monthly using mark-recapture methodology. In each territory, the type and amount of farm crops were measured each month and farmers were interviewed about their knowledge and beliefs about owls. Mackinder’s eagle owls in central Kenya lived at extremely high density 0.87 owl pairs/km². This density was high compared to other populations of Mackinder’s eagle owl and to Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) populations in Europe. Breeding success was 48% over three years and this compared well with other species of eagle owl inhabiting human-disturbed areas. All nests and roosts were located in river valleys, and all successful nest sites were located on cliffs or other inaccessible rocky terrain. Nest sites were located adjacent to farms, which provided for both open hunting and an abundance of prey. Breeding activity was concentrated after the rainy seasons and this was likely linked to prey availability after the rains. Agricultural activities generally had a positive effect on rodent populations. Small mammal trapping results revealed that rodents were over 14 times more abundant in farms than in adjacent grassland habitat. This population of Mackinder’s eagle owl had a very catholic diet and consumed mostly mammalian prey species including hares, giant rats, root rats, grooved-tooth rats and small rodents. Small rodents accounted for almost half of the owls’ diet and when their numbers increased, owls responded by consuming more of them, indicating the importance of farming activities to this population of owls. Other populations of eagle owl inhabiting human-disturbed areas had diet widths positively related to levels of habitat disturbance. This result supported optimal foraging theory that more productive environments have predators with more specialized diets, while patchy environments have generalist predators. The ecology of this population of Mackinder’s eagle owls was heavily influenced by human agricultural activities, which generally had a positive effect on their population. Farming activities changed rapidly both within and between seasons as plots were small and neighbouring farmers planted various crops at different times of the year and this was enhanced by irrigation in some areas. Year-round availability of forage within farms had a positive effect on owl prey species, some of which increased relative to the type and amount of crops found in farms. However, 57% of owl injuries and mortalities that occurred were related either directly or indirectly to human activities. Cultural prejudices against owls remain the biggest threat to this population’s long-term persistence. Farmer education was shown to play a significant role in overcoming negative beliefs about owls. Because Mackinder’s eagle owls are highly adaptable to anthropomorphic landscape changes, largely due to their adaptability as food generalists, they are one of the few top predators remaining in this highly disturbed agricultural system. However, populations within agricultural areas remain especially vulnerable to negative human attitudes towards owls due to their close association with human activities.

Non Governmental Organisations have been operating in Africa since the 1940’s; then, their work was heavily biased towards relief work. From the 1980s however, the role of NGOs evolved to include development; understandably, African governments were finding it increasingly difficult to provide adequate levels of basic services for their people. To this effect and initially; NGOs got involved in development as short term "gap fillers" in the provision of basic services; health and education amongst others. As Africa’s development discourse continued unabated, NGOs were recognised by donors and host governments alike, as indispensible to the provision of such services; in time however, they became the subject of criticism for allegedly failing to irreversibly ameliorate the conditions of the poor. In delivering services, NGOs work in a complex partnership characterised by power imbalances. The partnership involves donors who own the means of production which facilitate NGOs’ work and host governments who “own” the humanitarian space which NGOs need to fulfil their humanitarian mandate. While seemingly poor and powerless, the communities served wield the power to facilitate or block the success of NGO interventions through their commitment and/or lack thereof; respectively; NGOs’ contribution is their skills and humanitarian spirit. The success of NGO interventions is a function of resources, humanitarian space and the goodwill that donors, host governments and the communities served bring to the partnership table respectively. The study sought to establish why between 2001-2006; NGO post-drought rehabilitation through to development interventions failed to irreversibly reduce vulnerability against drought in communities in Machakos District and the extent to which power imbalances which characterise “partnerships for development” contributed to the failure by NGOs to fulfil their mandate. The study revealed that NGOs are unwaveringly committed to their humanitarian mandate however; the power imbalances that characterise “partnerships for development” and in particular, that between NGOs’ and donors militated against the fulfilment of their mandate in Machakos District. When NGOs fail to deliver on their mandate; they lose credibility amongst the other partners and this reinforces the power imbalances; it’s a vicious cycle. “Caught at Crossroads...” NGOs are indeed. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

Public, Constitutional and International Law / LLD

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Economic & Business Sciences, November 2016 / Community Health Workers or “CHWs” are often the only link to healthcare for millions of people in the developing world. They are the first point of contact with the formal care system, and represent the most immediate and cost effective way to save lives and improve healthcare outcomes in low-resource contexts. Mobile-health or ‘mHealth’ technologies may have potential to support CHWs at the point-of-care and enhance their performance. Yet, there is a gap in substantive empirical evidence on whether the use of mHealth tools enhances CHW performance, and how their use contributes to enhanced healthcare service delivery, especially in low-resource communities. This is a problem because a lack of such evidence would pose an obstacle to the effective large-scale implementation of mHealth-enabled CHW projects in low-resource settings. This thesis was motivated to address this problem in the Kenyan community health worker context. First, it compared the performance of CHWs using mHealth tools to those using traditional paper-based systems. Second, it developed and tested a replicable Technology-to-Performance Chain (TPC) model linking a set of CHW task and mHealth tool characteristics, to use and user performance outcomes, through four perspectives of Task-Technology Fit (TTF), namely Matching, Moderation, Mediation, and Covariation. A quasi-experimental post-test only research design was adopted to compare performance of CHWs using an mHealth tool to those using traditional paper-based systems. A primary structured questionnaire survey instrument was used to collect data from CHWs operating in the counties of Siaya, Nandi, and Kilifi, who were using an mHealth tool to perform their tasks (n = 257), and from CHWs operating in the counties of Nairobi and Nakuru using traditional paper-based systems to perform their tasks (n = 353). Results showed that CHWs using mHealth tools outperform their counterparts using paper-based systems, as they were observed to spend much less time completing their monitoring, prevention, and referral reports weekly, and report higher percentages of both timeous and complete monthly cases. In addition, mHealth tool users were found to have more positive perceptions of the effects of the technology on their performance, compared to those using traditional paper-based systems. An explanatory, predictive, research design was adopted to empirically assess the effects of a ‘fit’ between the CHW task and mHealth technology (TTF) on use of the mHealth technology and on CHW user performance. TTF was tested from the Matching, Moderation, Mediation, and Covariation ‘fit’ perspectives using the cross-sectional survey data collected from the mHealth tool users (n = 257). Results revealed that there are various unique ways in which a ‘fit’ between the task and technology can have significant impacts on use and user performance. Specifically, results showed that the paired-match of time criticality task and technology characteristics impacts use, while that of time criticality and information dependency task and technology characteristics impacts user performance. Results also showed that the cross-product interaction of mobility task and interdependence technology characteristics impacts use, and that of mobility task and interdependence and information dependency technology characteristics, impacts user performance. Similarly, the cross-product interaction of information dependency task and time criticality technology characteristics impacts user performance. Moreover, results showed that a perceived ‘fit’ between CHW task and mHealth technology characteristics partially and fully mediates the effects of user needs and tool functions on use and user performance, whereas ‘fit’ as an observed pattern of holistic configuration among these task and technology characteristics impacts use and user performance. It was also found that the perfect ‘fit’ between CHW task and mHealth tool technology characteristics leads to the highest levels of use and user performance, while a misfit leads to a decline in use and user performance. Notably, an over-fit of mHealth technology support to the CHW task leads to declining use levels, while an under-fit leads to diminishing user performance. Of the four ‘fit’ perspectives tested, the matching and cross-product interaction of task and technology characteristics offer the most dynamic insights into use and user performance impacts, whereas user-perception and holistic configuration, were also shown to be significant, thus further reinforcing these effects. Tests of a full TPC model revealed that greater mHealth tool use had a positive effect on the effectiveness, efficiency, and quality of CHW performance in the delivery of patient care. Moreover, it was found that ‘facilitating conditions’ and ‘affect toward use’ had positive effects on mHealth tool use. Furthermore, a perceptual TTF was found to have positive effects on mHealth tool use and CHW performance. Of note, this perceived TTF construct was found to be simultaneously a stronger predictor of mHealth tool use than ‘facilitating conditions’ and ‘affect toward use’, and a stronger predictor of CHW performance than mHealth tool use. Consequently, TTF was confirmed as the central construct of the TPC. The findings constitute significant empirical insights into the use of mHealth tools amongst CHWs in low resource settings and the extent to which mHealth contributes to the enhancement of their overall performance in the capture, storage, transmission, and retrieval, of health data as part of their typical workflows. This study has provided much needed evidence of the importance of a ‘fit’ between CHW task and mHealth technology characteristics for enabling mHealth impacts on CHW performance. The study also shows how these inter-linkages could improve the use of mHealth tools and the performance of CHWs in their delivery of healthcare services in low-resource settings, within the Kenyan context. Findings can inform the design of mHealth tools to render more adequate support functions for the most critical CHW user task needs in a developing world context. This study has contributed to the empowerment of CHWs at the point-of-care using mHealth technology-enabled service delivery in low-resource settings, and contributes to the proper and successful ‘scaling-up’ of implemented mHealth projects in the developing world. / MT 2018

Despite continued pursuit of development interventions to improve people’s livelihoods and reduce poverty, intended and actual outcomes of developments interventions may differ. Some scholars attribute this variation to flawed conceptualisation of development interventions while others view this divergence as evidence that implementation processes are complex and actual outcomes result from adaptations of the interventions by actors. To move beyond the discursive approaches to analysis of development interventions, this thesis addresses the question how do actors adapt them, why and with what outcomes in the long run? Empirically, it looks at how project officers and farmers adapted the National Dairy Development Project (NDDP), a dairy intervention implemented in Kenya between 1980 and 1995, and its long run outcomes. The intervention promoted zero grazing, intensive management of dairy cattle whose implementation by farmers was expected to increase land productivity as a means to address land scarcity, increase milk production and reduce poverty through generation of incomes from milk sales. The methodology of this thesis links mechanisms, contexts, and outcomes, three elements of realist explanation, to understand adaptations and outcomes of development interventions. Through thematic synthesis of in-depth interviews and analysis of project documents, this thesis explains adaptations and long run outcomes of the NDDP. Findings reveal that developers and farmers adapted several components of the intervention. With close reference to context, incentives and continuity pressures, this thesis utilises intervention effectiveness and matching mechanisms to explain how project officers adapted the NDDP. Further, through fit and resistance mechanisms, this thesis explains how farmers adapted zero grazing in the context of inadequate fodder, labour shortage and lack of resources to invest in dairy. In the long run, findings show that the intervention diminished as evident in coexistence of indigenous and modern dairy technologies and non-implementation of any dairy technologies by farmers. Despite adaptations of zero grazing by project officers and farmers, intensification of dairy cattle management has diminished in the context of resource constraints, neoliberal policies and labour shortage. Consequently, the objective to increase land productivity through intensive dairy cattle management, the rationale for initiation of the intervention, remains unresolved. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2014.

The burgeoning scholarship on African youth indicates that young people are experiencing difficulties in attaining social adulthood and spend extended time in waithood - a period of economic and job insecurities that is becoming a permanent marker of their youth, affecting their life trajectories and future aspirations (Honwana, 2012; Locke & te Lintelo, 2012). Youth waithood involves navigating precarious conditions arising under neoliberalism and its economic liberalization reforms, and developing new subjectivities resulting from the acquisition of extra skills set, maintaining social networks, and engaging in new political formations (Jeffrey, 2008). Informed by concepts of neoliberal subjectivities, opportunity spaces, and Bourdieu's forms of capital, I conducted qualitative research with university students in six public universities, and with educated young farmers in Western, Eastern, and Central regions of Kenya. I investigated how Kenyan youth navigate waithood by occupying new opportunity spaces opened up by student environmentalism and agricultural entrepreneurialism - two areas that have been reconfigured by global discourses of environmental change, green jobs, and agricultural transformation. My findings show that the occupational aspirations of educated youth were changing to include navigation strategies of portfolio occupations, tarmacking, and side-hustling. Within the new opportunity spaces, these youth realized neoliberal subjectivities that enabled them to garner capitals through self-making, entrepreneurialism, and reworking of elite distinctions. Student environmentalists' navigation strategies included acquiring environmental knowledge and work experiences; joining networks of environmental professionals; and participating in environmental anti-politics. Educated young farmers embraced ideologies of portfolio occupations and green livelihoods. They also relied on the reconfigurations of gendered identities and the rural-urban divide, competitive individualism, and associational life to rework their occupational aspirations and maintain elite distinctions in society. In sum, negotiating youth waithood is a complex, intertwined, and uncertain process involving flexibilities and chance opportunities to access, maintain, and utilize capitals. The emergent subjectivities remain insecure, unstable and do not necessarily guarantee exiting waithood.

Public, Constitutional and International Law / LLD

Unsustainable patterns of consumption by humankind have increased the rate of change in the natural ecosystems and consequently the levels of stress experienced within the environment. Access to sufficient good quality water is essential and a requirement to meet a number of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, poor land management and untenable agricultural practices have become the main drivers of the declining watershed services. Upstream farmers often have little or no incentives to take these impacts into account in their decision-making process. Therefore, without investment in ensuring proper land management, the trend in watersheds degradation will continue. Payment for Environmental Services (PES) has emerged as an incentive–based tool that is expected to motivate farmers to improve their agricultural practices. PES is set up to facilitate the process whereby the beneficiaries of environmental services pay compensation to providers of environmental services for conserving the ecosystem. This tool has received increasing attention as a means of creating incentive measures for managing the ecosystem, addressing livelihood issues for the rural poor, and providing sustainable financing for protected areas. The Government of Kenya, as part of its efforts to improve water resource management, is considering use of economic incentive. However, there is insufficient information to guide policy making in that direction. Little is known about the farmers’ preferences for management schemes that will affect land use patterns, their willingness to accept compensation and the willingness of potential buyers to pay for the services. This study evaluates the willingness to accept and the willingness to pay for environmental services with a view to assessing the viability of a PES scheme for the Kuywa Watershed in particular, as well as the Mt. Elgon Ecosystem and other areas with similar conditions. The objectives of the study are threefold (i) to examine respondents preferences for management options for the provision of environmental services in the watershed of River Kuywa of Mt. Elgon Ecosystem; (ii) to evaluate households’ willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA) payment for improved environmental services from the River Kuywa watershed; and (iii) to propose viable PES approaches for the management of the natural resource of the Kuywa watershed and the Mt. Elgon ecosystem in general. Using six land management attributes relevant to the local situation, the study applied the conjoint method to evaluate farmers’ preferences for management options for the provision of environmental service and assess farmers’ willingness to pay and willingness to accept payment for environmental services. To enable assessment of viability, an analysis was done of the institutional and legal framework within which the PES scheme would operate. Data were collected using literature review and document analysis, questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Results indicate that poor water quality was the most acute problem, followed by deforestation. Results from the conjoint models show that the length of commitment period and land size that is 40% or more of the total land holding influence the farmers’ rating of the management scenarios. The study found that a management contract that requires use of 20% of land holding for a period of 5 years, combined with a cash incentive, harvesting partially permitted, administered by a local NGO and requiring contribution of free labour for two days had the highest likelihood of being selected. The conjoint valuation exercise also came up with a WTA by farmers upstream of KSh. 7,080/= per year. The corresponding value downstream was KSh. 43/= per month over and above their regular water bill. In terms of the institutional and regulatory framework, Kenya has a wide range of policies, laws and regulation on water and other natural resources which provide an enabling environment for PES. With the decentralized institutional setup implemented in both the water sector and the agricultural sector, the institutional setting also provides an enabling environment for PES. With a positive WTA and WTP coupled with an enabling legal and institutional environment, the study concludes that PES is a viable environmental management tool for the Kuywa water shed and similar watersheds.