Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the leading cause of inherited intellectual disability. The disorder is caused by a trinucleotide expansion that silences the Fragile X Mental Retardation 1 (Fmr1) gene resulting in the loss of its protein product, the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP). FXS patients show broad clinical phenotypes including intellectual disability, as well as a number of cognitive and behavioral problems. The lack of FMRP is believed to be the direct cause of the deficits seen in FXS patients. FMRP is an RNA-binding protein that is expressed in the brain and testes. This protein is believed to form a messenger ribonucleoprotein complex with mRNAs in the nucleus and subsequently export them to polyribosomes in the cytoplasm, therefore influencing translation of its bound mRNAs. Importantly, FMRP has long been suspected to be involved in synaptic plasticity due to its ability to bind several mRNAs that encode for proteins important in synaptic plasticity. Such proteins include the GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B subunits of the N-methyl-D- aspartate receptor (NMDAR). FMRP is expressed in the hippocampus, a region of the brain involved in learning and memory processes. Recently, impaired NMDAR functioning in the dentate gyrus (DG) subregion of the hippocampus has been observed in Fmr1 knockout (-/y) mice. This impairment also resulted in reduction in long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic efficacy, two biological models of learning and memory. In the present study, I focused on the levels of the NMDAR GluN1, GluN2B and Glu2B subunits in order to determine the synaptic plasticity alterations seen in the DG of Fmr1-/y mice. Using Western blotting, I found that there is a decrease in the GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B subunits in the DG of young adult Fmr1-/y mice, indicating that these mice have significantly lower amounts of total NMDARs. These results could explain the altered LTP and LTD seen in Fmr1-/y mice at the molecular level and might contribute to the intellectual impairments seen in these KO mice. NMDARs appear to be important in the development and maturation of synapses. The GluN2A and GluN2B subunits are developmentally regulated, where GluN2B is predominantly expressed early in development and GluN2A in the adult brain. A dysregulation of GluN2A and GluN2B subunits has been proposed to affect the maturation and formation of synapses. Intriguingly, FMRP is also believed to play a functional role in early brain development. Thus, this study also focused on the developmental expression of the GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B subunits in the DG, Cornu Ammonis, prefrontal cortex and cerebellum of Fmr1-/y mice, all of which are brain regions implicated in FXS. We found that the developmental expression of these subunits is altered in Fmr1-/y mice in specific brain regions. Together, these results demonstrate that the loss of FMRP differentially affects GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B subunit expression both developmentally and spatially, further implicating NMDARs in the pathophysiology of FXS. / Graduate

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Les synapses fibres moussues de l‘hippocampe entre le gyrus denté et les cellulespyramidales de CA3 sont caractérisées par leur morphologie particulière, et par leurspropriétés distinctives de transmission synaptique et de plasticité présynaptique. Cessynapses sont parfois appelées «détonatrices» pour leur rôle fonctionnel dansl‘encodage de la mémoire épisodique. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires à labase des propriétés spécifiques de ces synapses restent peu connus. Ce travail estcomposé de deux parties principales:1) Phénotypage des synapses fibres moussues de l'hippocampe chez les sourisVAMP7 KOVAMP7 est une protéine SNARE vésiculaire de la famille des longins, qui joue unrôle dans la croissance des neurites durant le développement. Dans le cerveauadulte, VAMP7 est enrichi dans un sous-ensemble de terminaisons nerveuses, enparticulier dans les fibres moussues de l‗hippocampe. Nous avons analysé lafonction de VAMP7 dans la libération de neurotransmetteurs par une caractérisationextensive de la transmission synaptique et des mécanismes de plasticité de cettesynapse. L'absence de VAMP7 ne cause pas de graves déficits développementauxou neuronaux (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Les mécanismesprésynaptiques de la plasticité à court terme de la fibre moussue de l‘hippocampesemblent également normaux, pour des raisons éventuelles qui seront discutées.2) Circuits du CA3 examinés par traçage viral et enregistrements de pairesNous avons développé une technique pour établir des enregistrements en pairesentre cellules en grain du gyrus denté connectées et cellules pyramidales CA3 (GCCA3),sur des cultures organotypiques de tranches d'hippocampe de souris. Pouridentifier les partenaires présynaptiques directs à une cellule pyramidale CA3 ciblée,nous avons combiné l‘électroporation cellulaire unitaire et le traçage mono-transsynaptiquebasé sur un virus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Nous avonstransfecté une cellule pyramidale CA3 unique par tranche avec les plasmides codantla glycoprotéine d‘enveloppe du virus de la rage (RG), un rapporteur fluorescent, etla protéine TVA (récepteur de surface apparenté au EnvA, qui n'a pas d‘homologuechez les cellules de mammifères). Les tranches ont ensuite été infectées avec levirus de la rage recombinant et pseudotypé. Après 3-4 jours, le traçage mono-transsynaptiquerévèle les entrées présynaptiques de ce neurone unique. Ensuite, nousavons pu établir des enregistrements de paires entre les cellules en grain-CA3connectés, ainsi que de quantifier les partenaires présynaptiques de la cellulepyramidale CA3 de départ. / The hippocampal mossy fiber is characterized by its particular morphology, distinctsynaptic transmission and presynaptic plasticity. Moreover, this synapse has beencalled ―teacher‖ or ―detonator‖ for its proposed functional role in episodic memoryencoding. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying its specific functionalproperties remain elusive. This work is composed of two main parts:1) Phenotyping Hippocampal Mossy Fiber Synapses in VAMP7 KO MiceVAMP7 is a vesicle SNARE of the longin family important in neurite growth duringdevelopment. In the adult brain, VAMP7 is enriched in a subset of nerve terminals,particularly at the hippocampal mossy fiber. We analyzed VAMP7 function inneurotransmitter release by characterizing basal and evoked transmission at thissynapse in KO mice and fully tested hypotheses relevant to short-term plasticity.Loss of VAMP7 has been previously reported not to cause major developmental orneurological deficits (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynapticmechanisms of short-term plasticity at the hippocampal mossy fiber also seemunaffected for potential reasons that will be discussed.2) CA3 Circuits Probed with RABV-Tracing and Paired RecordingsWe developed a technique to establish paired recordings between connected dentategyrus granule cells and CA3 pyramidal cells (GC-CA3) in mouse hippocampalorganotypic slice cultures. To identify direct presynaptic partners to a defined targetCA3 pyramidal cell, we combined single-cell electroporation (SCE) and mono-transsynaptictracing based on a pseudotyped, recombinant rabies virus (EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG). Using SCE we transfected a single CA3 pyramidal cell perslice with the plasmids encoding: the RABV envelope glycoprotein (RG), afluorescent reporter, and TVA (the EnvA cognate surface receptor, which has nohomologue in mammalian cells). The slices were subsequently infected with EnvApseudotyped RABV ΔG. After 3-4 days, the RABV mono-trans-synaptic tracingrevealed the presynaptic inputs of that single neuron. Then, we were able toestablish paired recordings between connected GC-CA3 cells, as well as to quantifythe presynaptic partners of the starter CA3 pyramidal cell. / De mosvezel van de hippocampus kenmerkt zich door een bijzondere morfologie,uitzonderlijke synaptische transmissie en presynaptische plasticiteit. De synapswordt ook wel "leraar" of "detonator" genoemd vanwege zijn waarschijnlijke rol in decodering van het episodisch geheugen. Toch blijven de specifieke moleculairemechanismen van dit synaps onbekend. Dit werk bestaat uit twee delen:1) Fenotypering van mosvezel synapsen van de hippocampus in VAMP7 KO muizenVAMP7 is een vesicle-SNARE van de longin familie van belang bij de groei vanneurieten tijdens de ontwikkeling. In de volwassen hersenen, wordt VAMP7 verrijkt ineen subset van zenuwuiteinden, vooral in de mosvezel van de hippocampus. Weanalyseerden VAMP7 functie in neurotransmitter afgifte door het karakteriseren vanbasale en opgeroepen transmissie bij deze synaps in KO muizen. Eerder is algesteld dat gebrek aan VAMP7 niet leidt tot grote ontwikkelings- of neurologischeafwijkingen (Sato et al., 2011; Danglot et al., 2012). Presynaptische mechanismenvan korte termijn plasticiteit in de mosvezel van de hippocampus lijken ookonaangetast te zijn, de mogelijke redenen hiervoor zullen worden besproken.2) CA3 circuits onderzocht met behulp van RABV-tracing en gekoppelde opnamesWe ontwikkelden een techniek om gekoppelde opnames tussen korelcellen van degyrus dentatus en aangesloten CA3 piramidale cellen (KC-CA3) op zogenaamde‗mouse hippocampal organotypic slice cultures‘ te meten. Om rechtstreeksepresynaptische partners te identificeren van een specifieke CA3 piramidale cel,combineerden we single-cell electroporation (SCE) en mono-trans-synaptic tracingop basis van een pseudo-typed, recombinant rabiësvirus (EnvA pseudogetypedRABV ΔG). Met behulp van SCE transfecteerde we één CA3 piramidale cel per slicemet plasmiden die coderen voor: het RABV glycoproteïne-envelop (RG), eenfluorescerende reporter, en TVA (de aan EnvA verwante oppervlakte receptor diegeen homoloog in zoogdiercellen heeft). De slices werden vervolgens geïnfecteerdmet ENVA pseudogetyped RABV ΔG. Na 3-4 dagen bracht de RABV mono-transsynaptischetracing de presynaptische ingangen van die ene neuron aan het licht.Hierna konden we gekoppelde opnames doen tussen verbonden KC-CA3 cellen.Daarnaast konden we de presynaptische partners van de starter CA3 pyramidale celkwantificeren.