Master of Science / Department of Geology / Matthew W. Totten / Ness County has contributed 30 billion barrels to Kansas oil production since 1995, and has been an actively developing county in oil activity. The focus of this research project is to identify the reservoir qualities that make Mississippian-aged production favorable. Modern day logging techniques and seismic data allow specialists to seek out subtle heterogeneities to an oil producing formation once thought to be homogenous. Having success with horizontal drilling in other locations worldwide, large oil companies have acquired tens of thousands of acres with the intentions of drilling into the Mississippian, although some have recently backed out of the area. While some horizontal wells are producing today, complications with the compartmentalized, relatively thin Mississippian producing zones and short production longevities make horizontal drilling a high risk technique. Better understanding favorable reservoir qualities are essential for future production and development of oil fields in Ness County. This case study utilizes different variations of post and pre-stack 3D and 2D seismic data shot on about 3,200 acres spanning over 8 sections located in northwestern Ness County. The physical and chemical properties associated with the Mississippian formation in this area can be better analyzed with different methods for processing seismic data. Raw seismic signatures show little variation within the Mississippi Lime/Dolomite. Utilizing Seismic attributes derived from raw data may bring certain featured hydrocarbon bearing zones into view. Attributes such as curvature and coherency aid in interpreting physical features within the study area while spectral decomposition, amplitude, instantaneous frequency, and instantaneous Q hold detailed signatures dependent upon rock properties.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agronomy / Dave Mengel / The Kansas State University Soil Testing Laboratory currently uses the Walkley-Black (WB) method for soil organic matter (SOM) estimations, the Shoemaker-Mclean-Pratt (SMP) buffer for lime recommendations, and bases the soybean phosphorus (P) critical value for P fertilizer recommendations off other crops. Hazardous waste is produced from WB and SMP creating a health hazard for workers, and substantial cost for handling and disposal. The substantial increase in land area devoted to soybean creates the need to validate currently assumed soil test P critical value and check the current P recommendations for that crop. Overarching objectives of this dissertation are to find suitable non-hazardous replacements for WB and SMP, and to find the soybean P critical value in Kansas. Three common methods used to estimate SOM are WB, dry combustion (DC), and loss on ignition (LOI). An experiment was set up using 98 Kansas soils to compare WB, scooped and weighed, LOI scooped, and DC weighed. All methods correlated well to each other with LOI to weighed WB, LOI to DC, and WB weighed to DC, having correlation coefficients of 0.97, 0.98, and 0.98, respectively. The lowest variability was observed with DC, followed by WB weighed, LOI, and then WB scooped with average standard deviations of 0.04, 0.13, 0.17, and 0.24, respectively. Two non-hazardous alternatives to the SMP buffer to determine soil lime requirement are the Sikora buffer, and the modified-Mehlich buffer. Sikora’s buffer is designed to mimic SMP. Buffer values alone or Mehlich’s equation may be used to calculate lime requirements. Thirty seven soils with a pH less than 5.8 were incubated at lime rates 0, 2240, 4480, 8960, and 17920 kg ECC ha[superscript]-1. Amount of lime required to reach pHs 6.0, 6.3, and 6.6 was calculated. Mehlich’s equation better predicted lime requirements for all target pHs and buffers than buffer pH alone. The Sikora buffer with Mehlich’s equation provided a better lime estimation than the Mehlich buffer using Mehlich’s equation. A P correlation and calibration study was conducted with soybeans at 23 sites in Eastern Kansas from 2011 to 2014. Soil Mehlich-3 P available P was compared to relative soybean yield at these sites. Soybean P critical value was found to be between 10 and 15 or 11.6 mg kg[superscript]-1 using Cate-Nelson, and linear-plateau models, respectively. A linear response to P and relative yield was observed on soils testing between 3 and 8 mg kg[superscript]-1, but not on higher testing soils.

McDonalds Lime Ltd, situated in Otorohanga, New Zealand, operate two dry process rotary lime kilns producing burnt and hydrated lime for a range of industries including agriculture, roading, water treatment, gold mining and steel making. The following Technology in Industry Fellowship (TIF) funded Masters Project is structured around investigating the combustion characteristics of Kiln Two at McDonald’s Lime Ltd using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Numerical results obtained using the commercial CFD code FLUENT were first validated against experimental data from the International Flame Research Foundation’s (IFRF) Furnace No.1. The validation study focussed on comparing the finite rate and mixture fraction/PDF approaches to combustion chemistry, as well as different methods for defining coal particle size distributions. Numerical modelling of Kiln Two at McDonald’s Lime Ltd began with full three-dimensional simulations, however due to their complexity and large computational times, two-dimensional axisymmetric models were primarily used for investigations. Comparisons were made between the two approaches. Investigations into the original pulverised coal fired system focussed on how the kiln aerodynamics and heat transfer properties were affected by changes to the coal and air inlet properties. The performance of a recently installed waste oil firing system was also investigated, with results showing that firing the kiln with a 25% thermal substitution of oil is the most efficient mode of operation. As the investigations focussed on the combustion characteristics the effects of the reacting limestone bed were ignored in all simulations. CFD modelling of the combustion characteristics within a large scale rotary kiln proved to be an extremely complex task. The work presented in this thesis has however provided some promising results which will ultimately assist McDonalds Lime Ltd in reducing their operating costs and environmental impact. Futhermore, the project has laid the foundation for further investigations.

A cinza pesada é um sub-produto gerado do processo da queima do carvão mineral pulverizado nas caldeiras das termelétricas para a produção de vapor aquecido que atuará na geração de energia elétrica. Não há um destino adequado para esse tipo de cinza, sendo que o volume gerado diariamente é depositado em bacias de sedimentação, causando, dessa forma, problemas ambientais. Principalmente nos Estados Unidos, muitas pesquisas têm evidenciado o sucesso do emprego deste resíduo na construção de rodovias. Contudo, no Brasil as pesquisas sobre cinza pesada estão mais voltadas para a área de edificações. Deste modo, a proposta da pesquisa foi investigar os efeitos da cinza pesada quando incorporada a solos, através de ensaios laboratoriais, visando o aproveitamento deste resíduo na construção de bases e sub-bases de pavimentos. Também foi avaliado o efeito da adição de cal às misturas solo-cinza. Os ensaios utilizados na etapa experimental foram os de mini-CBR, resistência à compressão simples e resistência à tração por compressão diametral. Complementarmente, realizaram-se ensaios de CBR e de resistência à compressão simples na condição imersa. Os resultados mostraram que as adições de cinza pesada aos solos não melhoram as propriedades mecânicas das misturas compactadas. Entretanto, a adição de 3% de cal às misturas de solo-cinza proporciona a melhora significativa no comportamento mecânico das misturas, oferecendo uma solução para aproveitamento da cinza pesada na construção rodoviária. / Bottom ash is a by-product from the burning of mineral coal. It is utilized as fuel in thermal power stations in order to produce electrical energy. The bottom ashes are deposited in the lagoons and are harmful to the environment. In the United States, several researches have indicated successful uses of this waste in the construction of roadways. However, in Brazil the researches have been accomplished to use the bottom ashes in the civil construction. Thus, the purpose of the present research was to investigate the results of the bottom ash additions to soil in order to utilization in bases and sub-bases of pavements. Afterward, the effects of lime additions to soil-bottom ash mixtures were evaluates. The tests employded were mini-CBR, unconfined compressive strength and indirect tensile strength. California bearing ratio and immersion unconfined compressive strength were accomplish such supplementary tests. The results indicated that bottom ash additions to soils does not improve the mechanical properties of the compacted mixtures. However, the addition of the 3% of the lime to soil-bottom ash mixtures provided better mechanical performance, offering a feasible solution for the use of this waste in road construction.

A irrigação na citricultura ganhou grande importância nos últimos oito anos, devido à utilização de porta-enxertos menos tolerantes a seca. Hoje grande parte da citricultura irrigada é feita por gotejamento, sistema em que apenas uma porcentagem do sistema radicular recebe água. Esses pontos tornam de grande valia estudos relacionados às respostas das plantas submetidas a diferentes áreas molhadas de solo e também ao estresse hídrico. Esse trabalho foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar as respostas fisiológicas de lima ácida Tahiti a pequenas porcentagens de área molhada. Foi avaliada condutância estomática (gs), transpiração (T), temperatura foliar (Tf), potencial de água na folha (), teor de clorofila e produtividade e qualidade de frutos. O experimento foi conduzido na fazenda Areão ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba, SP, em um pomar de 1ha de lima ácida Tahiti (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) enxertadas em citromelo Swingle (Poncitrus trifoliata (L.) x Citrus paradisi Macf.) no espaçamento 7x4m e irrigados por gotejamento. Para leituras de condutância estomática e transpiração foi utilizado um porômetro de equilíbrio dinâmico e balanço nulo LI-COR 1600 (Licor, Inc., Lincoln, EUA). Para temperatura da folha foi utilizado um termômetro de infravermelho (Scantenp). Para determinação de potencial de água na folha foi utilizado uma camâra de Scholander (Modelo 3005 Soil Mosture Equipament Co., Santa Bárbara, CA, EUA), e para determinação do teor de clorofila foi utilizado o um clorofiLOG (Falker). A avaliação de qualidade de frutos foi feita seguindo as metodologias propostas por Bleinroth et al. (1976). As diferentes porcentagens de área molhada foram dadas por diferentes números e tipos de gotejadores, de forma a aplicar sempre a mesma lâmina de irrigação. Os resultados mostraram que não houve diferença significativa entre os tratamentos para gs, T, e Tf, porém Tf foi sempre superior a temperatura do ar, podendo ser um indicador de deficiência hídrica. Quanto ao potencial hídrico das folhas, o tratamento não irrigado apresentou menores valores em relação aos tratamentos de maior área irrigada. O tratamento não irrigado também apresentou menores teores de clorofila, principalmente o teor de clorofila b, na face sul (mais sombreada). A produção e qualidade de frutos não apresentaram diferenças significativas. / The irrigation in citrus gained great importance in the last eight years, due to the use of rootstocks less tolerant to drought. Currently, much of the citrus is irrigated by drip irrigation system, where only a percentage of the root system receives water. These items make great value for studies related to the responses of plants subjected to different áreas of wet soil and also to water stress. This study aimed to evaluate the physiological responses of Tahiti lime fruit a small percentage of wetted area. Was evaluated stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (T), leaf temperture (Tf), the leaf water potential (), chlorophyll content and productivity and quality of fruit. The experiment was conducted at the farm Areão ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba, Brazil, in a orchard of 1 ha of Tahit lime fruit (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) grafted in a citromelo Swingle (Poncitrus trifoliata (L.) x Citrus paradise Macf.) in a spacing of 7x4 m. For readings of stomatal condutance and transpiration was used a steady-state null-balcance porometer. For leaf temperature was used a infrared thermometer (Scantenp). To determine the potential of water on the sheet was used a Board of Scholander (Model 3005 - Soil Mosture Equipament Co., Santa Barbara, CA), and to determine the level of chlorophyll was used a clorofiLOG (Falker). The evaluate of quality of fruits was made following the methodology proposed by Bleinroth et al. (1976). The different percentages of wetted area were given by different numbers and types of drip, so as to always apply the same depth of irrigation. The results showed that there was no significant difference among treatments for gs, T, and Tf, but Tf was always higher than the air temperature and can be an indicator of water stress. As the water potential of the leaves, the non-irrigated treatment had lower values in relation to treatment of larger irrigated área. The nonirrigated treatment had lower levels of chlorophyll, especially the content of chlorophyll b, in the south side (more shaded). The production and quality of fruit showed no significant differences.

A citricultura brasileira está fundamentada predominantemente sobre apenas um cultivar porta-enxerto, o limoeiro Cravo, e explora poucos cultivares copa, de uma maneira geral. Desse modo, o setor citrícola fica limitado na abertura de suas fronteiras de exportação para frutas frescas por estar baseado em um pequeno número de cultivares. Além disso, ao redor de 80% dos plantios estão reunidos em uma região compreendida por quase 600 mil ha, de forma concentrada, no Estado de São Paulo e sul do Triângulo Mineiro. Esses fatos também acarretam em grande vulnerabilidade fitossanitária, com ameaças crescentes de pragas e doenças, levando à redução da produtividade e ao acréscimo dos custos de implantação e condução dos pomares. A Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC) ou amarelinho, causada pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa, é um exemplo destas ameaças. De elevada severidade em laranjas doces, causa redução no tamanho dos frutos, tornando-os inaptos para a comercialização in natura ou para produção de suco concentrado. Recentemente, as perdas em produção causadas pela CVC têm sido estimadas em até 10-14% da safra comercializável. Atualmente, o manejo da CVC está baseado na utilização de mudas sadias, poda de ramos afetados, e controle dos vetores. Além dessas medidas, é importante manter os tratos culturais exigidos no pomar. Entretanto, a utilização de cultivares resistentes é estratégia imprescindível para convivência com a doença em longo prazo. Este trabalho buscou avaliar o desempenho horticultural da laranjeira Folha Murcha, da tangerineira Satsuma cv. Okitsu e da limeira ácida Tahiti sobre doze porta-enxertos. Tangerina Satsuma cv. Okitsu e lima ácida Tahiti são espécies não sintomáticas em relação à CVC e tornam-se opções com potencial de exploração em pequenas propriedades. A laranjeira Folha Murcha tem demonstrado maior tolerância à CVC comparativamente aos demais cultivares de laranja doce. Os experimentos foram conduzidos na Estação Experimental de Citricultura de Bebedouro, EECB, (SP), e instalados em 2001. Em todos os experimentos foram avaliados o desenvolvimento vegetativo, produção e qualidade dos frutos (por no mínimo três safras) em cada combinação copa/porta-enxerto. Avaliações adicionais a respeito da tolerância à CVC foram realizadas no experimento de laranjeira Folha Murcha. Nos experimentos conduzidos sem irrigação, foi avaliada a tolerância ao déficit hídrico das copas usando duas metodologias: avaliação visual subjetiva e medição direta da coloração das folhas. Na limeira ácida Tahiti, a coloração externa dos frutos de exportação foi quantificada em função de variáveis colorimétricas, definindo-se uma metodologia quantitativa alternativa ao sistema atual de classificação dos frutos, baseado apenas na apreciação visual subjetiva. A avaliação horticultural de copas de laranjeira Folha Murcha, limeira ácida Tahiti e tangerineira Satsuma cv. Okitsu em doze porta-enxertos permitiu identificar porta-enxertos alternativos ao limoeiro Cravo, sendo estes os trifoliatas Flying Dragon, FCAV e Rubidoux. / Brazilian citriculture is mainly based on one rootstock cultivar, the Cravo Rangpur lime, exploring a restricted number of scion cultivars. This situation limits the expansion of citrus production for fresh fruit export, due to the limited number of cultivars in use. Besides, near 80% of citrus orchards are located in an area of approximately 600,000 ha, in the São Paulo State and the southern region of the Minas Gerais State. These facts also impose a large phytossanitary vulnerability to citrus production, due to the increasing threats of pests and diseases outbreaks, that cause productivity decrease and higher costs for orchard establishment and management. The Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC), caused by the xylem-limited bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, is one example of such threats. This disease is extremely severe in sweet oranges, causing size reduction ad quality deterioration of fruits, that become unsuitable for fresh consume or juice processing. The losses associated to CVC have been recently estimated in 10-14% of the total comercial crop in São Paulo State. CVC management is currently based on the use of healthy nursery plants, pruning of injured branches and control of the vectors. In addition to these strategies, it is important to maintain adequate cultural practices for orchard management. Nonetheless, the utilization of resistant cultivars is an indispensable strategy to co-exist with the disease in the long term. This study was aimed to evaluate the horticultural performance of Folha Murcha sweet orange, Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime grafted onto twelve rootstocks. Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime are assymptomatical species in relation to CVC, with potential to be produced in small areas. The Folha Murcha sweet orange has demonstrated high tolerance to CVC, when compared with other sweet orange cultivars. The trials were conducted at the Estação Experimental de Citricultura de Bebedouro, (EECB), and were planted in 2001. Evaluations of plant growth, yield and fruit quality were carried out in all the trials, during three years. In the Folha Murcha trial, additional evaluations of CVC tolerance were conducted. In the non-irrigated trials, tree water deficit tolerance was evaluated by two methods: visual assessment of water stress and direct leaf color measurements. In Tahiti lime, peel color of export fruits was measured and a quantitative methodology was defined as an alternative for current classification criteria, which are based on the subjective visual inspection of external fruit aspect. The horticultural evaluation of Folha Murcha sweet orange, Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime onto twelve rootstocks allowed to identify the trifoliate rootstocks Flying Dragon, Rubidoux and FCAV as alternatives to Cravo Limeira.

Shu King-hung. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-81). / ABSTRACT --- p.1 / Chapter CHAPTER I. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.3 / REFERENCES --- p.6 / Chapter CHAPTER II. --- BRIEF REVIEW OF THE ANALYTICAL METHODS USED / Chapter 1. --- Spectrophotometry --- p.8 / Chapter 2. --- Derivative spectrophotometry --- p.9 / Chapter 3. --- Atomic absorption spectrometry --- p.12 / Chapter 4. --- X - Ray fluorescence --- p.12 / REFERENCES --- p.14 / Chapter CHAPTER III. --- SIMULTANEOUS DETERMINATION OF ALUMINIUM OXIDE AND IRON (III) OXIDE / Chapter 1. --- Introduction / Review of the reported methods --- p.15 / Determination of aluminium and iron with / 8-hydroxyquinoline --- p.18 / Chapter 2. --- Experimental --- p.21 / Chapter 3. --- Results and discussion / Determination of iron --- p.28 / Determination of aluminium --- p.38 / Chapter 4. --- Conclusion --- p.52 / REFERENCES --- p.53 / Chapter CHAPTER IV. --- RAPID DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM OXIDE / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.56 / Chapter 2. --- Experimental --- p.62 / Chapter 3. --- Results and discussion --- p.66 / Chapter 4. --- Conclusion --- p.79 / REFERENCES --- p.80 / FIGURES / Chapter II-1 --- Attenuation of a beam of radiation by an absorbing solution --- p.8 / Chapter II-2 --- Gaussian curve and its first to fourth derivatives --- p.11 / Chapter III-l --- Effect of pH on the extraction of metals with8- hydroxyquinoline --- p.19 / Chapter III-2 --- "Normal absorbance spectra of the metal - oxinates: A1 (5ppm), Fe (5ppm)" --- p.20 / Chapter III-3 --- Effect of pH on the determination of iron (5ppm) --- p.29 / Chapter III-4 --- Calibration curve for the determination of iron (III) by spectrophotometry at 580 nm --- p.33 / Chapter III-5 --- "The first derivative spectra of metal-oxinates A1: 5ppm, Fe : 5ppm" --- p.39 / Chapter III-6 --- "The second derivative spectra of metal-oxinates, A1: 5ppm, Fe : 5ppm" --- p.39 / Chapter III-7 --- "Normal absorption spectra of the metal-oxinates : A1(5 ppm), Ti (5 ppm)" --- p.41 / Chapter III-8 --- Effect of pH on the determination of aluminium --- p.43 / Chapter III-9 --- Calibration curve for the determination of aluminium by second derivative spectrophotometry at 390 nm --- p.47 / Chapter IV-1 --- "Effect of pH on the development of colour of Ca- GBHA complex. Ca : 1.2 ppm, wavelength : 530 nm" --- p.68

A citricultura brasileira está fundamentada predominantemente sobre apenas um cultivar porta-enxerto, o limoeiro Cravo, e explora poucos cultivares copa, de uma maneira geral. Desse modo, o setor citrícola fica limitado na abertura de suas fronteiras de exportação para frutas frescas por estar baseado em um pequeno número de cultivares. Além disso, ao redor de 80% dos plantios estão reunidos em uma região compreendida por quase 600 mil ha, de forma concentrada, no Estado de São Paulo e sul do Triângulo Mineiro. Esses fatos também acarretam em grande vulnerabilidade fitossanitária, com ameaças crescentes de pragas e doenças, levando à redução da produtividade e ao acréscimo dos custos de implantação e condução dos pomares. A Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC) ou amarelinho, causada pela bactéria Xylella fastidiosa, é um exemplo destas ameaças. De elevada severidade em laranjas doces, causa redução no tamanho dos frutos, tornando-os inaptos para a comercialização in natura ou para produção de suco concentrado. Recentemente, as perdas em produção causadas pela CVC têm sido estimadas em até 10-14% da safra comercializável. Atualmente, o manejo da CVC está baseado na utilização de mudas sadias, poda de ramos afetados, e controle dos vetores. Além dessas medidas, é importante manter os tratos culturais exigidos no pomar. Entretanto, a utilização de cultivares resistentes é estratégia imprescindível para convivência com a doença em longo prazo. Este trabalho buscou avaliar o desempenho horticultural da laranjeira Folha Murcha, da tangerineira Satsuma cv. Okitsu e da limeira ácida Tahiti sobre doze porta-enxertos. Tangerina Satsuma cv. Okitsu e lima ácida Tahiti são espécies não sintomáticas em relação à CVC e tornam-se opções com potencial de exploração em pequenas propriedades. A laranjeira Folha Murcha tem demonstrado maior tolerância à CVC comparativamente aos demais cultivares de laranja doce. Os experimentos foram conduzidos na Estação Experimental de Citricultura de Bebedouro, EECB, (SP), e instalados em 2001. Em todos os experimentos foram avaliados o desenvolvimento vegetativo, produção e qualidade dos frutos (por no mínimo três safras) em cada combinação copa/porta-enxerto. Avaliações adicionais a respeito da tolerância à CVC foram realizadas no experimento de laranjeira Folha Murcha. Nos experimentos conduzidos sem irrigação, foi avaliada a tolerância ao déficit hídrico das copas usando duas metodologias: avaliação visual subjetiva e medição direta da coloração das folhas. Na limeira ácida Tahiti, a coloração externa dos frutos de exportação foi quantificada em função de variáveis colorimétricas, definindo-se uma metodologia quantitativa alternativa ao sistema atual de classificação dos frutos, baseado apenas na apreciação visual subjetiva. A avaliação horticultural de copas de laranjeira Folha Murcha, limeira ácida Tahiti e tangerineira Satsuma cv. Okitsu em doze porta-enxertos permitiu identificar porta-enxertos alternativos ao limoeiro Cravo, sendo estes os trifoliatas Flying Dragon, FCAV e Rubidoux. / Brazilian citriculture is mainly based on one rootstock cultivar, the Cravo Rangpur lime, exploring a restricted number of scion cultivars. This situation limits the expansion of citrus production for fresh fruit export, due to the limited number of cultivars in use. Besides, near 80% of citrus orchards are located in an area of approximately 600,000 ha, in the São Paulo State and the southern region of the Minas Gerais State. These facts also impose a large phytossanitary vulnerability to citrus production, due to the increasing threats of pests and diseases outbreaks, that cause productivity decrease and higher costs for orchard establishment and management. The Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC), caused by the xylem-limited bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa, is one example of such threats. This disease is extremely severe in sweet oranges, causing size reduction ad quality deterioration of fruits, that become unsuitable for fresh consume or juice processing. The losses associated to CVC have been recently estimated in 10-14% of the total comercial crop in São Paulo State. CVC management is currently based on the use of healthy nursery plants, pruning of injured branches and control of the vectors. In addition to these strategies, it is important to maintain adequate cultural practices for orchard management. Nonetheless, the utilization of resistant cultivars is an indispensable strategy to co-exist with the disease in the long term. This study was aimed to evaluate the horticultural performance of Folha Murcha sweet orange, Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime grafted onto twelve rootstocks. Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime are assymptomatical species in relation to CVC, with potential to be produced in small areas. The Folha Murcha sweet orange has demonstrated high tolerance to CVC, when compared with other sweet orange cultivars. The trials were conducted at the Estação Experimental de Citricultura de Bebedouro, (EECB), and were planted in 2001. Evaluations of plant growth, yield and fruit quality were carried out in all the trials, during three years. In the Folha Murcha trial, additional evaluations of CVC tolerance were conducted. In the non-irrigated trials, tree water deficit tolerance was evaluated by two methods: visual assessment of water stress and direct leaf color measurements. In Tahiti lime, peel color of export fruits was measured and a quantitative methodology was defined as an alternative for current classification criteria, which are based on the subjective visual inspection of external fruit aspect. The horticultural evaluation of Folha Murcha sweet orange, Okitsu Satsuma mandarin and Tahiti lime onto twelve rootstocks allowed to identify the trifoliate rootstocks Flying Dragon, Rubidoux and FCAV as alternatives to Cravo Limeira.

A cinza pesada é um sub-produto gerado do processo da queima do carvão mineral pulverizado nas caldeiras das termelétricas para a produção de vapor aquecido que atuará na geração de energia elétrica. Não há um destino adequado para esse tipo de cinza, sendo que o volume gerado diariamente é depositado em bacias de sedimentação, causando, dessa forma, problemas ambientais. Principalmente nos Estados Unidos, muitas pesquisas têm evidenciado o sucesso do emprego deste resíduo na construção de rodovias. Contudo, no Brasil as pesquisas sobre cinza pesada estão mais voltadas para a área de edificações. Deste modo, a proposta da pesquisa foi investigar os efeitos da cinza pesada quando incorporada a solos, através de ensaios laboratoriais, visando o aproveitamento deste resíduo na construção de bases e sub-bases de pavimentos. Também foi avaliado o efeito da adição de cal às misturas solo-cinza. Os ensaios utilizados na etapa experimental foram os de mini-CBR, resistência à compressão simples e resistência à tração por compressão diametral. Complementarmente, realizaram-se ensaios de CBR e de resistência à compressão simples na condição imersa. Os resultados mostraram que as adições de cinza pesada aos solos não melhoram as propriedades mecânicas das misturas compactadas. Entretanto, a adição de 3% de cal às misturas de solo-cinza proporciona a melhora significativa no comportamento mecânico das misturas, oferecendo uma solução para aproveitamento da cinza pesada na construção rodoviária. / Bottom ash is a by-product from the burning of mineral coal. It is utilized as fuel in thermal power stations in order to produce electrical energy. The bottom ashes are deposited in the lagoons and are harmful to the environment. In the United States, several researches have indicated successful uses of this waste in the construction of roadways. However, in Brazil the researches have been accomplished to use the bottom ashes in the civil construction. Thus, the purpose of the present research was to investigate the results of the bottom ash additions to soil in order to utilization in bases and sub-bases of pavements. Afterward, the effects of lime additions to soil-bottom ash mixtures were evaluates. The tests employded were mini-CBR, unconfined compressive strength and indirect tensile strength. California bearing ratio and immersion unconfined compressive strength were accomplish such supplementary tests. The results indicated that bottom ash additions to soils does not improve the mechanical properties of the compacted mixtures. However, the addition of the 3% of the lime to soil-bottom ash mixtures provided better mechanical performance, offering a feasible solution for the use of this waste in road construction.

Lime stabilisation is a ground improvement technique used to improve the engineering properties of cohesive fill materials. During earthworks operations, specialist plant is used to rotovate the clay fill material and intermix lime binder around clay clods. After completion of the lime treatment, the layer is compacted in the usual way. Immediately after mixing, the lime instigate a series of physico-chemical reactions within the clay soil. Where the chemical reactions are favourable and with time after compaction (curing) the material becomes progressively stronger and durable to environmental influences, e.g. inundation by surface or ground water. However, where sulphate is present within the soil, the reactions may change and the ingress of water into the layer can result in the expansive growth of deleterious minerals e.g. ettringite. While sulphate swell issues are relatively rare, when they do occur the degree of expansion can be very high. A high profile sulphate swell failure developed during the construction of the M40, Oxford, UK in 1989. Over the winter period after the lime stabilisation works, a 250mm deep lime treated layer heaved by up to 150mm - destroying the overlying road construction. Since the M40 failure, a substantial amount of effort has been undertaken to better understand the sulphate swell reactions and in this regard the state of scientific knowledge is relatively strong. A fundamental issue for field applications of lime stabilisation is that the vast majority of research has been undertaken on laboratory specimens prepared using methods which do not reflect site practice. Laboratory studies often use oven dried and finely crushed clay, whereas site operations will treat much larger clay clods to result in a more heterogeneous distribution of lime through the compacted soil body. With large clay clods, the chemical reactants must migrate through clods and this may cause the sequence of chemical reactions to change. A further challenge is that laboratory studies are typically undertaken with cure temperatures of 20°C, whereas a typical near surface temperature in the UK is <10°C. This is of particular relevance to sulphate swell failures which are reported to coincide with a reduction in ambient temperature over winter periods. Thus, the direct relevance of laboratory studies to site application was unclear. A series of laboratory experiments using a preparation method which reflects field applications of lime stabilisation was used to investigate the influence of large clay clods on the durability of lime stabilised clay soil. This method was applied to both low and high sulphate clay soils. A fundamental discovery from work on low sulphate clay is that the addition of lime binder to the surface of the clay clods causes a physico-chemical boundary to form. This boundary develops due to the rapid increase to the plastic limit of the clay preventing adjacent clods from joining together during compaction. This causes the engineering properties of each individual clod to develop independent to its neighbours and for each clay clod to be separated by an inter-clod pore space. The strength of each individual clay clod will increase with curing as the added lime dissociates into Ca2+ and OH- and migrates to form C-S-H deep within the clods. Where the material is compacted wet of the optimum water content, this condition improves ion migration and enables development of diffuse cementation deep within clods. The inter-clod porosity remains as a weakness throughout curing especially during specimen soaking, where the pore channels comprise a pathway, accelerating the ingress of soaking water. With low sulphate soil, the soaking water softens the treated material, however, with high TPS soil substantial sulphate swelling may develop. Thus, efforts to minimise this porosity during preparation is important and the use of quicklime with longer mellowing periods can cause the clay clods to develop high strength before compaction. The high strength clods resist compaction and the degree of inter-clod porosity in the compacted mass increases, worsening specimen durability to water ingress. The investigations into high sulphate clays included the development of a Novel Swell Test (NST) to assess volume change. A unique aspect of the NST was that the sulphate swell response of the lime treated material was investigated at site realistic temperatures of 8°C. It was identified that, when compared with standard laboratory test temperatures of 20°C the rate of sulphate swell is substantially higher at the low temperature. The mineralogical testing has permitted the hypothesis that, at 8°C the growth of crystalline ettringite becomes slower and the ettringite precursor, which has a high affinity to imbibe water, remains in this state for much longer. Thus, laboratory swell tests at 20°C may substantially underestimate the degree of swell that may develop in the field. As a pressing need, it is recommended that the industry adapt sulphate swell test methods to appraise the degree of swell at field realistic temperatures i.e. < 10°C. The work also identifies that the primary defence against sulphate swell is to condition the fill so that the risk of post compaction water ingress, via inter-clod porosity, is minimised. The use of GGBS and water addition during extended mellowing periods also reduces the degree of sulphate swell in natural clay soils. This work concludes that working methods for lime stabilisation of medium high plasticity soils of a potentially high sulphate content, should be adapted to encourage diffuse cementation and minimise the degree of (post compaction) inter-clod porosity. Practically this involves the use of hydrated lime and the addition of mixing water throughout extended mellowing periods. Fundamentally, the study recommends that where construction programmes allow, the long term durability of a fill material should be the priority over immediate strength.