Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is flammable when it forms a 5 – 15 percent volumetric concentration mixture with air at atmospheric conditions. When the LNG vapor comes in contact with an ignition source, it may result in fire and/or explosion. Because of flammable characteristics and dense gas behaviors, expansion foam has been recommended as one of the safety provisions for mitigating accidental LNG releases. However, the effectiveness of foam in achieving this objective has not been sufficiently reported in outdoor field tests. Thus, this research focused on experimental determination of the effect of expansion foam application on LNG vapor dispersion and pool fire. Specifically, for evaluating the use of foam to control the vapor hazard from spilled LNG, this study aimed to obtain key parameters, such as the temperature changes of methane and foam and the extent reduction of vapor concentration. This study also focused on identifying the effectiveness of foam and thermal exclusion zone by investigating temperature changes of foam and fire, profiles of radiant heat flux, and fire height changes by foam. Additionally, a schematic model of LNG-foam system for theoretical modeling and better understanding of underlying mechanism of foam was developed. Results showed that expansion foam was effective in increasing the buoyancy of LNG vapor by raising the temperature of the vapor permeated through the foam layer and ultimately decreasing the methane concentrations in the downwind direction. It was also found that expansion foam has positive effects on reducing fire height and radiant heat fluxes by decreasing fire heat feedback to the LNG pool, thus resulting in reduction in the safe separation distance. Through the extensive data analysis, several key parameters, such as minimum effective foam depth and mass evaporation rate of LNG with foam, were identified. However, caution must be taken to ensure that foam application can result in initial adverse effects on vapor and fire control. Finally, based on these findings, several recommendations were made for improving foam delivery methods which can be used for controlling the hazard of spilled LNG.

The Government of India has an ambitious mission of ¡¥power for all by 2012¡¦. This mission would require that the installed generation capacity should be at least 200,000 MW by 2012 from the present level of 114,000 MW. To be able to deliver this power to the entire nation, an expansion of the regional transmission grid-network and inter regional capacity to transmit power would be essential. The latter is required because resources are unevenly distributed in the country and power needs to be transmitted through great distances to areas where load centres exist. Indian government¡¦s ambitious plan can be met. Power generation is one thing but distribution and last mile delivery is a real challenge in remote rural India. 70% of India still lives in such rural settings. India is also notorious for loss of power in distribution due to its out dated distribution infrastructure and mismanagement. A lot is being done to improve the situation however to fast remedy the problem; government and private players can play an important role in setting up small power plants that are based on eco-friendly and efficient mode of power generation. India¡¦s western states and North eastern states are rich in natural gas. Unfortunately these areas are also remote, especially the North Eastern sector. Delivering power is quite a challenge. In search for a solution to this challenge we could be wise to choose greener solutions than otherwise. In the quest of which solution would be suitable for the chosen project, one could look across an array of available conventional and non-conventional sources of energy. Utilizing the locally available natural gas would be a right strategy. It also suits as a green choice. To exploit the availability of natural gas we would need technologies that are of right scale and are easily executable. A multi-million dollar mega gas power generation plant is neither plausible nor executable in those rural settings; however something of a smaller scale could be a good fit. There we see an opportunity for a green technology that may work wonder. Taiwan based Green Power Engineering Corporation has a solution in the form of their cutting edge gas turbine generator. With ease of setup and efficiency coupled with eco-friendly technology, the Gas turbine generators has the potential to be the solution to the much needed rural development by providing them continuous power.

¡@Because the public take account of ecological and environmental protection, there are many conflicts between the public and constructors to trigger many obstacles and duels in construction of many infrastructures. Thus, tradeoff between environment, lives, property and economic benefits is a big problem. In the researches of plural public affairs decision making and cognition impact management problems, practical researches found that Hammond(1965, 1975, 1996) developed SJT(Social Judgement Theory) from Lens model and had significant effects and contributions for analysis of public affairs decision making. The thesis uses SJT and studies cognition conflict management on representative case of environmental protection ¡¥the construction of CPC Yung-An LNG¡¦ in Taiwan. ¡@CPC Yung-An LNG began construction in May in 1984. Because environmental consciousness rose, the public gave relief to themselves when encountering environmental pollution. Negligence of communication with the village and of good-neighborliness makes the village not make allow and trigger Yung-An village dueled. This study bases on economic environment, gathers relative literatures and presents four controversial and representative topic for decision variables. They are individually ¡¥X1(benefit of construction of the firm)¡¦ and ¡¥X2(subsidies for the residents)¡¦ for economy, ¡¥X3(threat for ecology and environment)¡¦ for environment and ¡¥X4(threat for lives and property)¡¦ for both economy and society. ¡@This study uses SJT on the construction of ¡¥CPC Yung-An LNG¡¦ for cognition conflict management. The results are as below: (i)Government has higher stability and consistency of making decision than the residents. (ii)Government and the residents have significant difference for weight mean values of X1, X2 and X4. And they are the conflicts between them. (iii)Men and women have no significant difference for weight mean values of all decision variables. (iv)The older deciders have higher emphasis on X3 than the younger. But they have no significant difference for weight mean values of the other decision variables. (v)Lower educational background deciders have higher emphasis on X4, and there is no significant difference for all the other decision variables. (vi)There is no significant difference for weight mean values of all decision variables between core and border area. ¡@Finally, the study gets the judging principles of government and the residents. They are ¡¦average weights¡¦ and ¡¥function types¡¦ of all decision variables. Then, we use ¡¥specify¡¦ on Policy PC 3.0 software to make estimated judging table for all decision situations for government and the residents. Looking into the table can estimate the acceptance of government and the residents for all combinations of decision variables when making policies. We also can use the table to estimate the change of acceptance of government and the residents when any decision variables improve, and the authorizations can use the resources for the most efficient and effective applications when proposing improving methods.

This master thesis project aims to investigate the circumstances of boil-off for heavy vehicle transports, using LNG as fuel, and suggest possible ways of handling these gases otherwise released into the atmosphere. LNG, Liquefied Natural Gas, is when natural gas is cooled below its vaporisation point, turning it into liquid phase which is a much more dense way of storing and transporting the fuel. Trucks running on LNG store their fuel in super insulated tanks, but some heat are transferred to the fuel anyway, causing it to vaporise at a steady rate. During driving of these trucks, this vaporised gas is consumed and the pressure are kept at a certain level of 10 bar. Once the truck is turned off, consumption stops and the pressure starts to increase. After a period of standstill, normally several days, the pressure within the tank has increased to 16 bar where a valve opens to release gas from the tank. This is a safety feature, causing the pressure not to increase further creating hazards. While natural gas, mostly containing methane, is released, fuel is lost and an environmentally unfriendly substance is let out into the atmosphere. This should be avoided, to improve the environmental aspects of using LNG as a fuel for trucks, which most likely will be regulated by laws yet to come. Since the release of boil-off gases rarely should happen during the regular use of these trucks, but a system handling these gases should work at any time and place, a cheap and lightweight unit are to be fitted to these trucks. Equipment already on the truck should be used as much as possible, keeping additional costs and weight low. The only practical way of storing this gas, which is the most resource efficient way of handling these boil-off gases, is to re-liquefy it and transferring it back to the usual LNG tank on the vehicle. The second best option is to consume the gas, making it less environmentally unfriendly. While consuming the gas, as much as possible of its energy should be utilised as electricity and heat. Preferably, electricity should be produced as much as possible, charging the batteries on the truck, decreasing the fuel consumption while running and increasing the lifespan of the batteries. The most efficient way of managing the heat generated is to distribute it to the coolant system on the truck, providing it to the engine and several other components. Distributing the energy is also a matter of safety, as very hot areas otherwise might cause risks of fire. The most simple concept, that is easiest to implement in the near future, is to use a burner similar to the auxiliary diesel heaters fitted to some trucks today. This consumes fuel, generating heat to the coolant system. An additional cooler is needed, to cool of excess heat from the system keeping the temperatures to a certain level. Using this system for an extensive period of time needs an external power supply, since no electricity is generated from consuming the gas. Other technologies that could be used in the future, also generating electricity, is thermoelectric generators and solid oxide fuel cells. These are technologies now being further developed and adapted to the industry of vehicles. These technologies are especially interesting when they are implemented to these trucks for use within other systems as well, for instance utilisation of the heat within exhaust gases. A small scale re-liquefaction unit mounted to the truck is however seen as the most resource efficient solution, making it possible to keep using the gas for it intended purpose of propelling the trucks forward. This technology has to be made more compact, adapting it to the use on a truck.

Este trabalho estuda a integração energética ancorada no gás natural entre os países que formam o chamado Cone Sul, ou seja: Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil, Chile, Paraguai e Uruguai. Inclui-se uma breve revisão histórica, bem como uma análise comparativa com outras realidades internacionais. O trabalho volta-se para o futuro e assume como pressuposto que a integração energética e econômica das nações representa uma estratégia fundamental para que nações e regiões possam aumentar sua competitividade em um mundo cada vez mais global. A partir de revisão e análise das experiências de integração energética norte americana e européia, com ênfase no gás natural, são avaliados os fatores que levaram esses países a atingirem o atual nível de integração, buscando os fatores coincidentes e eventuais diferenças, que ajudem a guiar no caminho de uma integração sul americana, especificamente no Cone Sul. Esse trabalho também se propõe a analisar os a formação das indústrias de gás natural nos principais países que formam o chamado Cone Sul, tentando entender as principais questões regulatórias e econômicas assim como quais foram as principais influências geopolíticas nessa formação. Também é avaliada a estrutura logística que conecta esses países e como eles se relacionam comercialmente e também na esfera geopolítica. A análise parte do princípio que novos pontos de recebimento Gás Natural Liquefeito - GNL através de navios no Brasil, Chile e, possivelmente, no Uruguai trarão, além de uma oferta adicional de gás natural, um sinal de preço até então inédito em toda região. Propõe-se então, que a partir desses novos fatores logístico e econômico, crie-se a motivação para que se produza uma regulação de transporte e comercialização de gás natural para todo Cone Sul e assim se inicie um processo integração baseado na racionalidade econômica. A proposta é verificar a possibilidade de que os países que formam o Cone Sul aproveitem o fato de já estarem interligados fisicamente através de gasodutos evoluam para uma integração econômica e regulatória na indústria gasífera. / This work studs the energy integration based on natural gas among the countries from the Southern Cone: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile Paraguay and Uruguay. It includes a short historic review as well as a comparative analysis with other realities. This work look to the future and assumes that the energy and economy integration represents a fundamental strategy for countries e regions to increase their competitiveness inside a global world. From the review and the analysis of North American and European Energy integration experiences, with emphasis on natural gas, the events that led these countries to accomplish the present integration degree will be evaluated, presenting coincident factors and eventual differences that could help guide to the way of South American integration, specifically in the so-called Southern Cone. This study also proposes to review the natural gas industries formation in the main countries that form the Southern Cone, trying to understand the most important regulatory and economic issues as well as the essential geopolitical influences on such formation. The logistics structure that connects these countries, the way they relate commercially and their geopolitical relation will also be assessed. The analysis supposes that new Natural Gas Liquefied - LNG reception terminals through Brazilian, Chilean and possibly Uruguaian vessels will bring both an additional supply of natural gas and a new price indication throughout the region. In view of that and considering these new economic and logistical factors, the creation of a motivation to construct a natural gas transportation and marketing regulation for all Southern Cone is proposed, starting an integration process based on economic rationality. This study purpose is to launch the stimulus for the Southern Cone countries to take advantage of the fact that they are already physically interconnected and thus also create mechanisms for economic integration.

The Master thesis "Importance of LNG in the Global Economy and its Geopolitical Impacts" describes the market with liquefied natural gas and the importance of developing this technology for the global energy market. It analyzes the LNG market and compares it with other energy markets and other energy commodities, especially in terms of financial costs associated with shipping. Also captures the historical context and predictions that accompanied the development of LNG. It focuses on the impact of LNG on isolated gas prices in various regional markets. The thesis also deals with the impact of geopolitical development of LNG. As is reflected in the issue of energy security. Describes who profits from the LNG boom, what threatens other producers of energy resources LNG and how it will develop in the future market.

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), which is present in the oil and gas industry, can pose a risk to the workers engaged in the activities in this field. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, there is no study on NORM presence and NORM measurement in liquefied natural gas (LNG) fuel systems and installations. Therefore, the question on whether NORM, particularly radon and radon progeny, can pose a risk to the health of employees, is still open. This study provides the initial base for further investigation and real NORM measurement. In this study, all stages of radon and radon decay products movement and deposition starting from natural gas production till the final destination are analyzed and reviewed. Several techniques for NORM detection and measurement are proposed. In the case if radon levels exceed the reference level, several actions towards radon reduction are proposed.

This master thesis deals with issue of natural gas liquefaction, its transport, storing and regasification. Part of this work was designing off a small liquefaction cycle and regasification unit.

This diploma thesis formulates recommendations for managerial decision making while acquiring new vessels. It analyses by means of a quantitative research the possible fuel cost savings achievable by running IFO and LNG powered vessels, their benefits and drawbacks in terms of economical, environmental and sociolog-ical aspects. Subsequently, Payback Periods and IRR of aforementioned fuel types are calculated and questionnaire data gathered. Hypotheses for the questionnaire research are statistically tested and reveal a relation between customers attitudes to shipping companies and their willingness to pay more for the same service with better CSR strategy. The quantitative research shows LNG as the best fuel option for shipping companies, offering benefits in all three pillars of CSR.

In the Maritime Works Engineering department of Saipem, studies have been carried out to design an extension to an existing LNG export facility. The scope of work comprises the design of a jetty on piles. For this purpose, wave propagation and ship mooring computations have been performed, as well as shore protection and abutment studies. These studies were preceded by meteocean site data and bathymetry analysis.