Nucleic acid therapy holds real promise to offer less severe (lower side effects) as a treatment for life threatening and difficult to treat diseases such as cancer, heart disease or Alzheimer's disease. Theranostic nanomaterials that combine diagnostic imaging and therapeutic delivery, have potential to minimize the amount of time and dosage required for the treatment. This is achieved via delivery of nanoparticles that carry therapeutic payload as well as imaging agents; these agents need to circulate in the body longer due to its (larger) size and selectively accumulate in the tumor regions through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. We have designed novel lanthanide (Gd, Tb or La) containing polymers with oligoethyleneamine and lanthanide chelating units to incorporate DNA binding and imaging agent functionality. Protonable amines along the polymer backbone electrostatically interact with DNA and compact it into a nanoparticle. These nanoparticles can be imaged both in vivo (Gd analogues, magnetic resonance imaging) and intracellularly (Tb chelation, fluorescence spectroscopy). Polymers were synthesized via step-growth polymerization to achieve a degree of polymerization of 18-24 for different analogues with varying amine number (three to six, N3-N6) along the backbone. Dynamic light scattering performed on the polyplexes (polymer-DNA complexes) indicate that they are in nanometer size range (50-80nm). All the polymers used to form polyplexes exhibited low toxicity to cultured human Glioblastoma cells (U-87) and showed variable transfection efficiency dependent on structure, comparable to G4 (sold as Glycofect"), a commercial transfection agent previously developed in our lab. This dissertation describes the first studies by the Reineke lab to monitor polyplex formation and destabilization using lanthanide resonance energy transfer (LRET). Polyplexes were formulated with Tb chelated N5 polymer and tetramethyl rhodamine (TMR) labeled pDNA, which are "LRET pairs". We observed decrease in luminescence intensity of Tb polymer (donor) in close proximity of TMR DNA (acceptor) in an intact polyplex at different N/P ratios. However, upon destabilization of polyplexes by addition of salt or heparin solution, the increase in distance between donor and acceptor resulted in increase in the luminescence intensity of Tb polymer. With the LRET technique, we are able to monitor formation and destabilization of polyplexes by monitoring change in luminescence of the donor chromophore (Tb). Polyplexes formulated with non-paramagnetic analogues (La chelated) of N4, polyethyleneimine (PEI) and G4 were studied using NMR to quantify free vs. bound polymer in a formulation. The amount of free polymer was measured by integrating the broad resonances from nanometer-sized particles (polyplexes) with narrow peaks from free polymer chains. This was supported by using an internal reference method to quantify free polymer amount from known internal reference concentration. We observed an increase in the amount of free polymer with N/P ratio for all three systems and both the methods showed comparable results. / Ph. D.

A novel luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) nanocircuit assay involving a donor and two acceptors in tandem was developed to study the dynamic interaction of skeletal muscle contraction proteins. The donor transmits energy relayed to the acceptors distinguishing myosin subfragment-1 (S1) lever arm orientations. The last acceptor allows the detection of S1's bound near or in between troponin complexes on the thin filament. Additionally, calcium related changes between troponin T and myosin were detected. Based on this data, the troponin complex situated every 7 actin monomers, hinders adjacently bound myosins to complete their power stroke; whereas myosins bound in between troponin complexes undergo complete power strokes.

Mechanistic details on the regulation of striated muscle contraction still need to be determined, particularly the specific structural locations of the elements comprising the thick and thin filaments. Of special interest is the location of the regulatory component, troponin, on the actin filament and how its presence influences the behavior of myosin binding to the thin filament. In the present study: (1) Luminescence resonance energy transfer was used to monitor potential conformational changes in the reconstituted thin filament between the C-terminal region of troponin T and myosin subfragment 1; (2) Location of troponin in previously derived atomic models of the acto-myosin complex was mapped to visualize specific contacts; and (3) Shortened tropomyosin was engineered and protein binding and ATPase assays were performed to study the effect of myosin binding close to the troponin complex. Analysis of the results suggest the following: (1) Irrespective of calcium levels, the C-terminal region of troponin T is located close to myosin loop 3 and a few actin helices that may perturb strong acto-myosin interactions responsible for force production. (2) Atomic models indicate myosin subfragment 1 cannot attain the post- powerstroke state due to the full motion of the lever arm being sterically hindered by troponin. (3) A shortened tropomyosin with five actin binding modules (instead of the native seven in muscle cells) binds actin contiguously in a head-to-tail manner and serves to increase the periodicity of troponin complexes on the actin filament. Such behavior eliminates the structure of the actin filament being responsible for the binding location of tropomyosin. (4) Differential behavior of myosin subfragment 1 i.e. (a) binding adjacent to troponin and (b) binding further away from troponin, is apparent as tropomyosin and troponin appear to govern the regions or "target zones" where myosin can bind productively along the actin filament. Physiologically, myosins able to bind close to troponin, but not participate in force production may function as mechanical sensors to attenuate or dampen the force generated from the so-called "target zones". Therefore, this could be a pseudo-regulatory mechanism that functions to protect the contractile apparatus from damage.

Les canaux ioniques dépendants du voltage sont responsables de l'initiation et de la propagation des potentiels d'action dans les cellules excitables. De nombreuses maladies héréditaires (channelopathies) sont associées à un contrôle défectueux du voltage par ces canaux (arythmies, épilepsie, etc.). L’établissement de la relation structure-fonction exacte de ces canaux est donc crucial pour le développement de nouveaux agents thérapeutiques spécifiques. Dans ce contexte, le canal procaryote dépendant du voltage et sélectif au potassium KvAP a servi de modèle d’étude afin d’approfondir i) le processus du couplage électromécanique, ii) l’influence des lipides sur l’activité voltage-dépendante et iii) l’inactivation de type closed-state. Afin de pallier à l’absence de données structurales dynamiques du côté cytosolique ainsi que de structure cristalline dans l’état fermé, nous avons mesuré le mouvement du linker S4-S5 durant le gating par spectroscopie de fluorescence (LRET). Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé une technique novatrice du contrôle de l’état conformationnel du canal en utilisant les lipides (phospholipides et non phospholipides) au lieu du voltage. Un modèle dans l’état fermé a ainsi été produit et a démontré qu’un mouvement latéral modeste de 4 Å du linker S4-S5 est suffisant pour mener à la fermeture du pore de conduction. Les interactions lipides - canaux jouent un rôle déterminant dans la régulation de la fonction des canaux ioniques mais ne sont pas encore bien caractérisées. Nous avons donc également étudié l’influence de différents lipides sur l’activation voltage - dépendante de KvAP et mis en évidence deux sites distincts d’interactions menant à des effets différents : au niveau du senseur de voltage, menant au déplacement de la courbe conductance-voltage, et du côté intracellulaire, influençant le degré de la pente de cette même courbe. Nous avons également démontré que l’échange de lipides autour de KvAP est extrêmement limité et affiche une dépendance à l’état conformationnel du canal, ne se produisant que dans l’état ouvert. KvAP possède une inactivation lente particulière, accessible depuis l'état ouvert. Nous avons étudié les effets de la composition lipidique et de la température sur l'entrée dans l'état inactivé et le temps de récupération. Nous avons également utilisé la spectroscopie de fluorescence (quenching) en voltage imposé afin d'élucider les bases moléculaires de l’inactivation de type closed-state. Nous avons identifié une position à la base de l’hélice S4 qui semble impliquée à la fois dans le mécanisme responsable de ce type d'inactivation et dans la récupération particulièrement lente qui est typique du canal KvAP. / Voltage-gated ion channels are responsible for the initiation and propagation of action potentials in excitable cells. Several hereditary diseases (channelopathies) are associated with a defective voltage control by these channels, leading to arrhythmias, epilepsy, etc. Hence, establishing the exact structure/function relation for ion channels is crucial for the development of new specific therapeutic agents. Here, the bacterial voltage-gated potassium channel KvAP served as a model to study i) electromechanical coupling, ii) influence of lipids on the voltage dependent activity and iii) closed-state inactivation. To overcome the lack of structural information on the cytosolic side and of crystal structure in the closed state, we determined the S4-S5 linker movement during gating using fluorescence spectroscopy (LRET). We were able to control the conformational state of the channels by using lipids (phospholipids and non phospholipids) instead of voltage clamp. Based on these experimental constraints, a model in the closed state was produced, showing that a small 4Å radial displacement of the S4-S5 linker is sufficient to close the conduction pore. Interactions between lipids and membrane proteins play an important role in the regulation of ion channels activity but are not well characterized. We studied the influence of different lipids on KvAP voltage-dependent activation and showed two distinct effects related to different interactions sites: one bound to the voltage sensor, leading to a shift of the conductance-voltage curve, and another at the intracellular side near the pore region, affecting the steepness of this curve. We also showed that the exchange of lipids is very limited around KvAP and seems to be state dependent, occuring only when the channels are kept in the open state. KvAP has a slow inactivation atypical, accessible from the open state. We studied the effects of lipid composition and temperature on entry into inactivation and recovery. We also used voltage-clamp fluorometry in bilayers to investigate closed-state inactivation molecular basis. We identified a position at the bottom of the S4 helix that seems involved in the mechanism for slow inactivation and the extremely slow recovery from inactivation typically displayed by KvAP.

Hyperexcitabilité est l'un des changements les plus importants observés dans de nombreuses maladies neuro-dégénératives telles que la sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) et la maladie d'Alzheimer. De nombreuses recherches études se sont concentrées sur la réduction de l'hyperexcitabilité, soit en inactivant les canaux sodiques ce qui va réduire la génération de potentiels d'action, soit en prolongeant l'ouverture des canaux potassiques ce qui va qui ramener la membrane à son état de repos et réduire l’activité des neurones. Ainsi, pour cibler l'hyperexcitabilité, il faut tout d’abord comprendre les différents aspects de la fonction des canaux ioniques au niveau. Les objectifs des travaux présentés dans cette thèse consistent à déterminer le mécanisme d'inactivation dans les canaux potassiques Shaker. Les canaux Shaker Kv s'inactivent rapidement pour culminer le potentiel d'action et maintenir l'homéostasie des cellules excitables. L'inactivation de type N est causée par les 46 premiers acides aminés situés de l'extrémité N-terminale du canal, encore appelé, peptide d'inactivation (IP). De nombreuses études mutationnelles ont caractérisé l'inactivation de type N au niveau fonctionnel, cependant, la position de l'IP à l'état de repos et leur transition lors de l'inactivation est encore débattue. L'objectif de la première étude consiste à évaluer le mouvement des IP pendant leur inactivation à l'aide de la fluorométrie en voltage imposé. En insérant un acide aminé non naturel, la 3-[(6-acétyl-2-naphtalényl) amino]-L-alanine (Anap), qui est sensible aux changements d'environnement, nous avons identifié séparément les mouvements de la boule et de la chaîne. Nos données suggèrent que l'inactivation de type N se produit dans un mouvement biphasique en libérant d'abord le IP, ce qui va bloquer le pore du côté cytoplasmique. Pour affiner davantage la position de repos des IP, nous avons utilisé le transfert d'énergie de résonance à base de lanthanide et le métal de transition FRET. Nous proposons que le IP se situe dans la fenêtre formée par le canal et le domaine T1, interagissant avec les résidus acides-aminés du domaine T1. Dans notre deuxième étude, nous avons montré que le ralentissement de l'inactivation de type N observé dans la première étude est causée par une expression élevée des canaux Shaker. En effet, l'extrémité C-terminale du canal interagit avec les protéines d'échafaudage associées à la membrane pour la formation d'amas. Nous avons aussi montré qu'en tronquant les quatre derniers résidus C-terminaux impliqués dans la formation des amas, nous empêchons également le ralentissement de la cinétique d'inactivation dans les canaux Shaker. Nous avons également démontré que l'inactivation lente de type N n'est pas affectée par l'accumulation des cations potassiques [K+] externe ou toute diaphonie entre les sous-unités voisines. Cette étude élucide non seulement la cause du ralentissement de l'inactivation, mais montre également que les canaux modifient leur comportement en fonction des conditions d'expression. Les résultats trouvés au niveau moléculaire ne peuvent donc pas toujours être extrapolés au niveau cellulaire. / Hyperexcitability of neurons is a major symptom observed in many degenerative diseases such as ALS and Alzheimer’s disease. A lot of research is focused on reducing hyperexcitability, either by inactivating sodium channels that will reduce the generation of action potentials, or by prolonging the opening of potassium channels which will help to bring the membrane back to resting state and thus, reduce firing frequency of neurons. At the molecular level, it is important to understand different aspects of ion channel function to target hyperexcitability. The aim of this thesis was to investigate in two projects the inactivation mechanism in Shaker potassium channels. Shaker Kv channels inactivate rapidly to culminate the action potential and maintain the homeostasis of excitable cells. The so-called N-type inactivation is caused by the first 46 amino acids of the N-terminus of the channel, known as the inactivation peptide (IP). Numerous mutational studies have characterized N-type inactivation functionally, however, the position of the IP in the resting state and its transition during inactivation is still debated. The aim of the first project was to track the movement of IP during inactivation using voltage clamp fluorometry. By inserting an unnatural amino acid, 3-[(6-acetyl-2-naphthalenyl) amino]-L-alanine (Anap), which is sensitive to changes in environment, we identified the movements of ball and chain separately. Our data suggests that N-type inactivation occurs in a biphasic movement by first releasing the IP, which then blocks the pore from the cytoplasmic side. To further narrow down the resting position of the inactivation peptide, we used Lanthanide-based Resonance Energy transfer and transition metal FRET. We propose that the inactivation peptide is located in the window formed by the channel and the T1 domain, interacting with the acidic residues of the T1 domain. In a follow-up study, we explored the reason underlying slow inactivation kinetics observed during the study of N-type inactivation in the first project. High expression of Shaker channels results in slowing of the N-type inactivation. The C-terminus of the channel interacts with membrane associated scaffold proteins for cluster formation. In this study, we have shown that by truncating the last four C-terminal residues involved in cluster formation, and hence preventing channel clustering, we also prevent slowing of the inactivation kinetics in Shaker channels. We also showed that slow N-type inactivation is not affected by accumulation of external [K+] or any crosstalk between the neighboring subunits. The second project not only elucidates the cause of the inactivation slow-down but illustrates that the channels alter their behavior dependent on the expression conditions. Results found on the molecular level can thus not always be extrapolated to the cellular level.

Aufkonvertierungs-Nanokristalle (UCNPs), wie NaYF4 Kristalle, welche mit Yb3+ and Er3+ Ionen dotiert sind, emittieren höher energetisches Licht im ultravioletten/sichtbaren und nahinfraroten Bereich, nachdem sie mit weniger energiereichem nahinfraroten Licht angeregt wurden. Damit besitzen sie einzigartige optische Eigenschaften, wie verschiedenfarbige Emissionsbanden, verringerte Hintergrundfluoreszenz, größere Eindringtiefen in organisches Probenmaterial und eine hohe Lichtstabilität. Diese Eigenschaften sind besonders in der optischen Bioanalyse, in medizinischen und technischen Anwendungen von Vorteil. In dieser Arbeit werden die photophysikalischen und spektralen Eigenschaften von UCNPs im Ensemble und an Einzelpartikeln untersucht. Ein dafür entwickeltes konfokales Mikroskop ermöglicht Einzelpartikelmessungen bis in den Sättigungsbereich der UCNPs bei hohen Laser Anregungsleistungsdichten (P). Die erste Studie dieser Arbeit umfasst Ensemble- und Einzelpartikelmessungen an Kern und Kern-Schale 𝛽-NaYF4 Kristallen, welche mit 20% Yb3+ und 1% bis 3% Er3+ Ionen dotiert sind, wobei die optischen Eigenschaften P-abhängig über sechs Größenordnungen untersucht wurden. Die zweite Studie diskutiert die Einflüsse bei starker Änderung der Yb3+/Er3+ Ionen Dotierung anhand von drei verschiedenen Probensystemen. Diese unterscheiden sich sowohl in der Partikelgröße als auch in der Synthesevorschrift. Bei der dritten Studie wurde die direkte Anregung von Yb3+ mit der von Nd3+ Ionen an Nd/Yb/Er dotierten NaYF4 Partikeln bezüglich des aufkonvertierten Lumineszenz Verhaltens in Wasser verglichen. In weiteren Messungen wurde sowohl der Lumineszenz Resonanz Energie Transfer (LRET) ausgehend von einem UCNP zu dem Farbstoff Sulforhodamine B, als auch plasmonische Wechselwirkungen von Au-Schale UCNPs bei Einzelpartikelmessungen untersucht. / Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), such as, NaYF4 crystals co-doped with Yb3+ and Er3+ ions, emit higher energetic light in the UV/vis and NIR range under lower energetic NIR excitation. This generates unique optical properties, for example, multi-colour band emissions, reduced background fluorescence, deeper tissue penetration depths and high photostability rendering UCNPs attractive options for bioimaging, medicinal and engineering applications. In this thesis the influence of multi-factor parameters on the photo-physical and spectroscopic properties of UCNPs are investigated under ensemble and single particle (SP) condition. For this purpose, a confocal laser scanning microscope was constructed to enable the characterisation of individual UCNPs up to their saturation conditions at high laser power densities (P). At first, ensemble and SP studies of core- and core-shell 𝛽-NaYF4 crystals co-doped with 20% Yb3+ and 1% to 3% Er3+ are performed over a P-range of six orders of magnitude. The second part of this thesis discusses influences in a wide variation in Yb3+/Er3+ ion doping concentration. Thereby, three different sample sets of varying size have been studied, using different synthesis approaches. A comparison of the Nd- and Yb-excitation of Nd/Yb/Er triple-doped NaYF4 UCNPs regarding their upconversion luminescence performance in water is provided in the third section of the thesis. In further studies, the process of luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) from an UCNP to the sulforhodamine B dye and the plasmonic interaction of an Au-shelled UCNP have been examined at the SP level.