This research investigated whether local economic development interventions necessarily improve the livelihoods of poor communities. More specifically, the goal of this thesis was to explore some of the reasons why land-based economic development interventions often struggle to meet their main objective of improving the livelihoods of local poor people.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African government started the restructuring process of the state’s forest assets in 1998. The privatisation process includes all the assets of the South African Forestry Company (SAFCOL) and half of the former homelands’ 150 000 hectares of forest. In August 2000 SAFCOL released their “Operational Plan for Implementing Exit from Forestry in the Southem-Cape Portion of the Western Cape Region”. This plan identified only major land uses (agriculture, forestry, and conservation). A more detailed and intensive land evaluation study was required to specify land utilisation types that are tailor-made to each land unit of the study area. The main intention of this research study is to develop a more detailed evaluation process that elaborates on the land uses proposed by SAFCOL, which is site-specific in terms of the type of agricultural system to be used on specific areas, or the type of indigenous vegetation to be restored in conservation areas. La Motte plantation was taken as the case study and the SAFCOL digital database for the study area was used as the input data. The Automated Land Evaluation System (ALES) was the computer software package used to build the expert system to evaluate land according to the method presented in the FAO 1976 report. The ALES model built in this research study had 15 decision trees (one per land utilisation type) resulting in a total of 1678 branches, which relate land characteristics to severity levels of land qualities. During the computation of an evaluation ALES attempts to place each map unit into one of the four severity levels of land qualities within each landutilisation type. Physical suitability of each land unit for each land utilisation type was determined by the maximum limitation method. ALES is not a GIS and does not by itself display maps. The evaluation result matrix was exported into ArcMap for further optimisation and geographical analysis to enable the spatial representation of the results. After completion, taking into account the theoretical background, optimal terrain units were identified for the different land uses considered and the results are presented as tables and maps. Fynbos is the most suitable alternative land use for the study area followed by Pears, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay vines. Pinotage, Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc vines were least suitable as alternatives. The study found that the SAFCOL’s database is not sufficient to meet the requirements of a detailed site-specific land evaluation process. The polygon attribute table of the soil coverage only provided a subset of the land characteristics necessary to build and run the model. Data fields like soil form, depth, drainage, wetness, terrain type, aspect and climatic information had to be created because most of the data provided were in a non-digital form. The database was not complete and more precise data are needed to improve the system. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering het in 1998 met die herstruktureringsproses van die bosboubates van die Staat begin. Die privatiseringsproses het al die bates van die Suid-Afrikaanse Bosboumaatskappy (SAFCOL) en die helfte van die vorige tuislande se 150 000 hektaar ingesluit. In Augustus 2000 het SAFCOL sy Operasionale Plan vrygestel vir die implementering van sy onttrekkingsprogram van bosbou uit die Suid-Kaap gedeelte van die Weskaap-streek. Hierdie plan het slegs die hoof landgebruike geidentifiseer, bv. landbou, bosbou en natuurbewaring. ‘n Meer gedetaileerde en intensiewe grondgebruikstudie was nodig om geskikte gebruikstipes te identifiseer wat optimale altematiewe gebruike spesifiseer vir elke landeenheid in die studie-area. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsingstudie is om ‘n meer gedetaileerde proses te ontwikkel ter uitbreiding van die altematiewe landgebruike wat deur SAFCOL voorgestel was. Hierdie voorstel moet meer ligging-spesifiek wees in terme van die tipe landbougewas of die tipe inheemse plantegroei wat in natuurbewaringsgebiede gevestig moet word. Die La Motte-plantasie is as voorbeeld gebruik om hierdie gevalle-studie te doen en die inligting is vanaf die SAFCOL digitale databasis verkry. Die rekenaar sagteware-pakket wat gebruik is om die land-evalueringstelsel te bou, is die “Automated Land Evaluation System” (ALES). Dit berus op die metode wat in die verslag van die FAO in 1976 voorgestel is. Die ALES model wat in hierdie navorsingstudie benut is, het 15 beslissingsbome (“decision-trees”) (een per landgebruikstipe) wat ‘n totaal van 1678 vertakkings lewer. Landeienskappe word hierdeur in verband gebring met verskillende geskiktheidsvlakke vir verskillende gewasse. Gedurende die berekening van hierdie evaluasie, het ALES elke gebiedseenheid in een van die vier geskiktheidsvlakke per grondgebruikstipe geplaas. Fisiese geskiktheid van elke landeenheid vir elke grondgebruikstipe is bepaal deur die maksimum beperkingsmetode. ALES is nie ‘n GIS nie en op sy eie vertoon dit nie kaarte nie. Die uitslag van die geskiktheidsmatriks is na ArcMap uitgevoer vir verdere optimisering en geografiese analises ten einde die resultate ruimtelik voor te stel. Na afhandeling, met inagneming van die teoretiese agtergrond, is optimale terrein-eenhede gei'dentifiseer met inagneming van die verskillende landgebruike en is die resultate in tabel en kaartvorm aangebied. Fynbos is die mees geskikte altematiewe landgebruik vir die studiegebied gevolg deur Pere, Sauvignon Blanc en Chardonnay wingerde. Pinotage, Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon en Cabernet Franc wingerde is minder geskikte altematiewe. Die studie het bevind dat die SAFCOL databasis nie voldoende was om aan die vereistes van ‘n gedetaileerde liggingspesifieke landevalueringsproses te voldoen nie. Die poligoon-attribuuttabel van die grondoorleg het net ‘n subversameling van die landeienskappe verskaf wat benodig was om die model te bou en uit te voer. Datavelde soos grondvorm, diepte, dreinering, vogtigheid, terreintipe, hellingrigting en klimaatinligting moes geskep word, omdat meeste van die data wat verskaf is nie in ‘n digitale vorm beskikbaar was nie. Die databasis was nie volledig nie en meer presiese data word benodig om die stelsel verder te verbeter.

To redress past discrepancies in land tenure, the ANC government acknowledged that land needs to be made accessible to the previously disadvantaged, announcing that commonage would be a pillar of their land reform programme. Municipal commonage is land granted by the state to municipalities for urban households to use. Presently many urbanites in South Africa seek a livelihood from commonage. However, there has been no livelihood valuation of the contribution commonage makes to previously disadvantaged households. Thus there is a need to calculate the benefits of the commonage programme. Through a two phase approach, this thesis investigated firstly, the proportion of township households which use commonage; and the main characteristics of those households. Secondly, the thesis looks at the extent to which commonage contributes to users' livelihoods and the dominant livelihood strategies pursued by user households. Data was collected for three towns in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa; Bathurst, Fort Beaufort, and Grahamstown. Firstly it was found that between 27-70% of households used commonage, with the largest town having the lowest proportion of users, and vice versa for the smallest town. In terms of household characteristics, each study town was unique. Both Bathurst and Grahamstown user households were poorer than non-using households, however all Fort Beaufort households were considered poor. To assess the benefits of the commonage programme, the marketed and non-marketed consumptive direct-use values of land-based livelihoods on commonage were calculated via the 'own reported values' method. Commonage contributions to total livelihoods ranged between 14-20%. If the contributors from commonage were excluded, over 10% of households in each study town would drop to living below the poverty line. Additionally, commonage was being used productively, with the productivity at each study town being worth over R1 000 per hectare and over R4.7 million per commonage. Finally, a typology of subsistence/survivalist commonage users is presented, with four types being identified. Overall, results suggest that commonage use has increased over the last decade. Moreover, due to food inflation and urbanisation the use of commonage is expected to increase further, highlighting the need for holistic commonage management plans to be created, which should include strategies such as sustainable grazing regimes and natural resource management.

The research explored the causal relationship between the communal land tenure and the stagnant agricultural productivity in rural villages. It is assumed that there is covariance between the communal land tenure and the stagnant agricultural productivity. The communal land tenure deprived the villagers of the land ownership rights to mortgage their landholdings to secure agricultural credit from financial institutions, or to advance them as own contributions to obtain Government-provided grants under the ILRAD. Under such circumstances, the villagers could not raise the level of agricultural productivity. The Permit to Occupy (PTO) certificates, issued to the landholders, provided for usufruct rights only i.e. right to occupy and use an allotment. The related research was conducted at Nonkcampa village. The metatheory, “Positivism” and the quantitative paradigm were applied to collate and analyse the data. The research findings confirmed the correlation between the land tenure and the agricultural productivity, as the respondents claimed not to have had any access to agricultural inputs. Hence, the agricultural productivity on the arable land had stagnated.

This thesis presents a history of the landscape of Nqabara, an administrative area in a rural and coastal area of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. In the process of investigating landscape history, the inquiry engages with a range of data sources from diverging discursive contexts, including data from ethnographic fieldwork, from the consultation of archival documents and historical reports as well as from comparative historic and ethnographic research, necessitating a critical consideration of the epistemological contexts of data production and the dialogue between researcher and data. Furthermore, in its aim to move beyond historical description towards explanation, the study interrogates the dualist ontological conceptualisations of nature and culture, society and ecology, object and meaning upon which are built three dominant conceptual frameworks concerned with human-environment relationships: social-ecological systems theory, transdisciplinary landscape studies and political ecology. Drawing primarily upon the works of James Gibson, Anthony Giddens and Tim Ingold, an ontological foundation is developed to guide the enquiry and move towards an alternative understanding of the relationship of people’s livelihoods with respect to the landscape in which it is lived, which I call here the praxisembodiment perspective. This ontology takes the situated patterns of action of a situated agent-in-its-environment as its point of departure and proceeds to develop a framework explaining how relations among the patterns of action of different agents-in-their-environment, emerge in structures that simultaneously enable and constrain future action. The foundation is thereby provided for a monist understanding of how landscape and social structure emerge simultaneously from the complex intersection of patterns of actions and interactions of agents in their environment. This framework calls for an understanding of time, space and scale, not as independent variables influencing process and action, but as emergent properties arising from the patterns of actions of situated agents. Finally the alternative ontology is applied to the history of landscape and livelihoods of people of Nqabara. It is concluded that an appropriate understanding and explanation of the critical transformations in the landscape as well as in social institutions, should be sought through analysis of the complex ways in which patterns of action of multiple spatial and temporal rhythms and between multiple agents in an environment, intersect and resonate.

This thesis uses the sustainable rural livelihoods framework to investigate the livelihoods of communities residing adjacent to a remote protected area on the Wild Coast. The communities living in the area are among the poorest in South Africa and are largely dependent on migrant remittances and state welfare grants for their survival. Soon after South Africa's first democratic elections in 1994, the communities lodged a land claim against the protected area on the basis of past removals. In 2001, their land rights to the protected area were restored, opening up new avenues for the development of the area. It is argued that livelihood systems in the area are complex, varied and dynamic, and that for development to be sustainable, it needs to be informed by a thorough understanding of the many factors that shape the context in which livelihoods are generated. The research is based primarily on 'in-depth' micro-studies of two villages in the area - Ntubeni and Cwebe. It includes a detailed assessment of the extent and distribution of poverty and the various factors that make households vulnerable to livelihood shocks. The role of the rich and diverse natural resource base, the property rights associated with it, and the under-development of infrastructure and services in the area, are discussed in relation to livelihood prospects. A systems approach is used to examine the various ways in which livestock husbandry, cropping, natural resource use, employment and welfare dependence interact. Finally, the thesis examines in some detail the distribution of household assets, livelihood strategies and livelihood outcomes between the two villages, and between households in different income groups.

This study concerns the analysis of policy, and the statutory and regulatory impact of spatial planning on the land reform programme with emphasis on the land reform settlement plan (LSRP) of the Amathole District Municipality (ADM). There is a brief historical overview of the effect of the policy of spatial segregation in both rural and urban areas of the ADM. This study demonstrates, inter alia, the challenges faced by the ADM in both consolidating and physically integrating communities that were hitherto divided across racial lines. The critical question is whether the ADM has the ability to produce a Spatial Development Framework (SDF), which will be responsive to the needs of the region and serve as a catalyst in reversing the physical distortions caused by the land-planning legislation of the apartheid past. The greatest challenge lies in meeting the developmental aspirations of the Development Facilitation Act, 1995, the Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 2000 and the National Spatial Development Perspective, 2003. Chapter 1 deals with the purpose, research problem and the method of research, as well as the definition of terms used in this research and literature review. Chapter 2 deals with the evolution of central themes of spatial planning and land reform, spatial development plans and integrated development plans (IDPs), the alignment of Amathole SDF and Eastern Cape Spatial Development Plan and the co-ordination of spatial frameworks. Chapter 3 deals with the composition of the ADM and the evolution of the LRSP, as well as land-tenure reform programmes impacting on the Amathole Municipality region. This chapter analyses the settlement plan against spatial planning legislation, the issue of institutional arrangements and mechanisms of consolidated local planning processes. Chapter 5 deals with the thorny issue of participation of traditional leaders in municipal planning and the government’s land-reform programme. Despite the existence of legislation in this regard, implementation seems to pose some difficulties. This chapter also deals with the co-operative governance framework. Chapter 6 is a concluding chapter dealing with the gaps discovered in the Amathole Municipality in the light of existing legislation. Reference to cases is made to demonstrate the challenges confronting the ADM. One notable aspect is the issue of urban-rural dichotomy and how the two worlds are positioned in their competition for the use of space. It is evident from this research that the post-1994 policy and legislative framework and implementation machinery lacks capacity to change the current form of the apartheid city-planning paradigm, something which impacts immensely on the sustainability of the current human-settlement development programmes. Population dynamics in terms of migration are hugely driven by search for employment opportunities and better services. The efficiency and ability of the municipal spatial evelopment frameworks in directing and dictating the identification of development nodes in its juristic boundary informed by the overarching national policy and legislative framework is key in building a better South Africa.

This thesis focuses on land reform in post-apartheid South Africa and specifically on land redistribution, as one of the main pillars of land reform. There have been many studies undertaken on land redistribution in South Africa and these studies offer deep criticisms of the prevailing land redistribution model (a market-led, but state-assisted model) and the ways in which this model has failed to meaningfully address colonial dispossession of land. Further, studies have focused on post-redistribution livelihoods of farmers and the many challenges they face. One significant gap in the prevailing literature is a sustained focus on the state itself, and particularly questions around policy formation and implementation processes pertaining to land redistribution. Delving into policy processes is invariably a difficult task because outsider access to intra-state processes is fraught with problems. But a full account of land redistribution in South Africa demands sensitivity to processes internal to the state. Because of this, it is hoped that this thesis makes a contribution to the existing South African land redistribution literature. In pursuing the thesis objective, I undertook research amongst farmers on selected redistributed farms outside Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape, as well as engaging with both current and former state land officials. Based on the evidence, it is clear that the policy process around land in South Africa is a complex and convoluted process marked not only by consensus-making and combined activities but also by tensions and conflicts. This, I would argue, is the norm with regard to what states do and how they work.

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Land reform programmes have been implemented to address challenges of inequality in land ownership and poverty in many countries worldwide. They provide the poor people with important livelihood opportunities, such as livestock rearing, crop production and game farming in many rural areas. The government of South Africa, through the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) allocated various farms through the restitution programme to deal with unemployment, poverty, unsustainable livelihoods, shortage of skills and inequality challenges. This study focused on the restituted farm beneficiaries in Waterberg District. This was informed by the fact that since these farms were restituted, the majority of the farm beneficiary’s livelihoods have not significantly changed. A transformative sequential mixed method design was applied in this study in order to enable beneficiaries define their own issues and seek solutions. This involved concurrent collection of both quantitative and qualitative data; a stratified random sampling method was used to select 474 respondents. Qualitative data was collected using Interview guides, photo-voice and focus group discussions mainly from key informants- traditional leaders and the Ward Councillors. Two focus group discussion were held with the key informants and an observation was also used to collect qualitative data from the farmers. The data were analysed using ATLAS. ti version 7.5.7 and Thematic Content Analysis. The quantitative data was collected using a survey questionnaire and the Geographical Information System (GIS) approach to provide trends of the farm production. Remote sensing analysis was used to determine farm production performance of these restituted farms while the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS version 25) was used for computing descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation. The data indicated that farm production has declined since occupation of farms by the farm beneficiaries from 1995 to 2015. The decline has negatively affected the livelihoods of farm beneficiaries since more than half (61.6 %) indicated difficulties in effective operation of the farm due to lack of markets. About 64% of the farm beneficiaries have not been trained in farming. From 1995 to 2015, most of the restituted farms have lacked markets for their produce due to poor production arising from lack of funds to manage the farms. This has impeded beneficiaries from receiving any benefits, in terms of income or employment. Generally, the study concluded that there were no changes in the socio-economic status of the farm beneficiaries in the Waterberg District because most of the farms are not being utilised. The study recommends that the sector Department and private organizations should work together in ways, such as assisting the farm beneficiaries with capacity building, developing marketing strategy for the farm produce, with funds and infrastructure to improve production. With respect to farm performance satisfaction, the majority (77.2 %) of the farm beneficiaries were not satisfied with the restituted farms. Their benefits in terms of human development, financial, social and physical capitals had not changed as the majority (83.3 %) said there are no improvements in terms of salaries or wages. They claim that their livelihoods have remained the same because the farms are not operational due to lack of basic farming skills and conflicts. Agricultural Extension Advisors, Councillors, Traditional leaders and officials from DRDLR confirmed that production levels have declined because the land was transferred to people with no basic training in farming; most (54 %) of the respondents confirmed that the beneficiaries, therefore utilise only a portion of the farms. It is imperative, thus, to ensure that production on the restituted farms is enhanced to improve the areas, such as social, financial, human and physical capital. A three-pronged intervention strategy was, therefore, developed to help restituted farm beneficiaries in Waterberg District to improve their livelihoods, emancipate themselves from poverty and ultimately contribute to the National Development Plan of South Africa. The developed strategy is anchored on three key factors: the need for thorough assessment by the government on the farm beneficiary’s level of commitment to the farm prior to farm allocation and funding, need to incorporate new experts in agricultural economics and agricultural engineers into the restituted farms personnel and the need to decentralize the services of mentors and agricultural extension advisors at District and local Municipalities. / NRF

This study is about the gender dimensions of land reform in South Africa. The case study is that of a housing and resettlement project in Daggakraal, Mpumalanga Province. The aim of the study was to describe and analyse empirical realities for rural women, in relation to land, in Daggakraal. The focus was on the research questions for the study namely the nature of land reform practice; whether gender issues were central in land reform at all stages of the project; whether or not participation of women was truly genuine; and the constraints that were faced in the process of land reform delivery. The study was conducted in Daggakraal, a rural town in Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Research methods employed were both quantitative and qualitative with more emphasis on the latter. A total of 100 respondents participated in the study. This number included 10 key informants 3 of whom were trained as research assistants. The findings indicate that there was very little gender analysis carried out prior to land reform. For this reason land reform has not benefitted the women and men of Daggakraal. Land reform policies and other legislation put in place were not followed to the letter in Daggakraal and in other areas of the country where land reform was implemented; the first land reform (SLAG) has not benefitted the poor, especially women; the rural terrain is an area of contestation and competing interests between women and men. There is also a lack of institutional arrangements to implement a gendered approach to land reform. This study demonstrates the need to tackle and transform the existing power relations at the household level, if government is serious about the gender dimension of land reform in South Africa. In a small way it is hoped that this study will contribute to the limited writing on land reform and gender and also provide a gendered critique of the land reform programme in South Africa. The Gender Analysis Framework (GAF) and the feminist and gender perspectives have helped the researcher to understand and explain the gender dynamics in Daggakraal. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)