Thesis (M.S.P.D.(Prof.))--University of Queensland, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references.

Many rural communities in the United States are experiencing a transition away from traditional conceptions of agrarian lifestyles and landscapes, and are increasingly faced with a new set of values, desires, and perspectives being brought in by new residents. This change in land use and land ownership presents opportunities as well as challenges to rural areas. This paper explores the some of the grounds behind some of the changes taking place, specifically in a political economic context, and the effect these changes are having on rural landscapes and the communities they support. In the face of a changing perception of "rural", I argue that it is important to acknowledge and foster respect for a plurality of values and desires for the land, both in how productivity of the land is conceptualized, as well as the approaches taken to manage these changes into a sustainable future. Community Landcare is one approach emerging in the United States, and presents a model to foster a sense of community in a multifunctional landscape, while providing the forum for landowners to maintain their individual values while coming together with a shared interest in "caring for the land". A case study of the Catawba Valley and its developing Catawba Landcare group illustrates these connections. / Master of Arts

The Australian landcare movement is considered to be a major success, with an extensive community landcare network developed, raised levels and depth of awareness, and a range of demonstration projects undertaken. It has inspired people across Australia and has been emulated overseas. However, negative trends in environmental conditions continue unabated. If the approach of the Australian landcare movement to date has not addressed the current unsustainable farming practices, what approach will? This Australian study explores the history of the ‘mechanistic’ worldview, its influence on the attitudes to and treatment of landscapes and indigenous knowledge from colonisation, and the ongoing impacts on current social and natural rural landscapes. Increasing tension between the mechanistic worldview and the growing landcare ethic based on relationships is apparent. Through the focus project, Watershed Torbay, a different way of seeing and treating the world is explored by praxis. A worldview based on relationships and connection as the end purpose is proffered. Strengthening connection with one’s own moral framework, and relationships with people and place in community, are seen as the path to achieving sustainability based on ecological and values rationality. It is recognised that there are multiple ways of seeing and experiencing the world, and it is important to give voice to all players with a connection to decision making. This also means that there are different forms of knowledge; these can be grouped under the typology of epistemic or scientific knowledge, techne or technical/practical capability, and the central form of knowledge about values and interests. I have worked with the focus project as a reflective practitioner undertaking action research; this is evident in the movement between theory and practice through the thesis. The thesis concludes in praxis taking the learning from the focus project, and exploration of theory, to answer the question posed at the outset by outlining how the relational worldview can be applied to the regional bodies now delivering major landcare programs.

Youth unemployment and environmental degradation are two critical issues facing Australia today. This action research study concerns learning and teaching with participants in a government labour market program which was established to address these two issues. The study was based on three cycles of action research with six groups of participants. The main objective of the research evolved to consider whether critical thinking and action learning can enhance self-concept and environmental education for unemployed young people. The research provides a positive response to this problem, although certain limitations are noted. Conclusions are drawn in five areas. Three of these are from the first cycle of action research. These relate to environmental attitudes, knowledge and action; approaches to environmental education and learning; and the impact of unemployment, peer pressure and mass culture. Two conclusions are drawn from the second cycle of action research. These relate to the integration of action learning and critical thinking strategies into the learning and teaching; and the individual participants' life history and prior knowledge and experience of environmental issues. Recommendations are made concerning professional development and support for staff working in the area, and the planning and implementation of programs. The major recommendation is for the integration, where appropriate, of integrated critical thinking and action learning strategies, through all aspects of the training and project work. This recommendation draws on evidence from a number of areas where these approaches are shown to be beneficial. These include the potential for emancipation and improved selfconcept, and the contribution to environmental education.

In the Philippines, about 38 per cent of the total population resides in rural areas where poverty remains a significant problem, especially in remote upland communities. Soil erosion has been a well-recognised problem in these areas, resulting in a number of impacts on the livelihoods of the rural poor. The development and dissemination of soil and water resource conservation (SWC) techniques has been seen as essential to achieving improved and lasting outcomes for the livelihoods of upland communities, with benefits spilling over beyond the farm boundary. The participatory development of a cost-effective means of controlling soil erosion, natural vegetative strips (NVS), has increased the adoptability of SWC for many upland households, enabling them to incorporate agroforestry and other practices in their farming systems. The Landcare Program in the southern Philippines has facilitated the adoption of these practices over the past decade. However, the impacts of adoption on the livelihoods of farming households, and the externalities that adoption may deliver, have remained speculative. This thesis first explores whether the adoption of Landcare practices has resulted in improved livelihood outcomes for upland farming families. Second, it analyses the potential for the piecemeal adoption of these measures to deliver tangible benefits at the watershed scale. Finally, using a benefit-cost approach, these outcomes are compared to the costs of the research and extension projects that have helped achieve them. The analysis is carried out in two upland municipalities, San Isidro and Pilar, in the Province of Bohol. Landcare households in Bohol dedicate a large percentage of household resources to the production of rainfed rice, which is the primary source of subsistence for adopting households while upland plots play a secondary role. The adoption of NVS alone did not typically generate significant economic benefits, yet created the stable platform on which more commercial investments were being made, especially through NVS enrichment. In San Isidro, the average annual income of adopters generated from upland activities was estimated to be more than double that of non-adopters, with a difference of over PHP 7,500. In Pilar, the net impacts of adoption were estimated to be only around PHP 3,700, given that many households had not enriched their NVS at the time of the survey. At the household level, the benefits of adoption are therefore contingent on the ability of the household to make further investments in their farming system, stemming from improved soil stability. Several case studies were used to describe the process of and constraints to farm development. The average impacts on incomes were found to be significant at the household level, with the potential to lift a household above the poverty threshold. Yet the marginal nature of the upland farming systems limits the aggregate on-site benefits. The expansion of activities into Pilar and Alicia was estimated to increase the net annual benefits, reaching PHP 2,270,000 (around AUD 60,000) per year by 2009. In absolute terms, this impact is still quite modest, but needs to be considered together with the off-site impacts and the costs of the Landcare Program. In Pilar, one of the clearest impacts of erosion due (in part) to upland cropping has been the sedimentation of the Malinao Dam. The significance and distribution of forgone revenue from irrigated rice as a result of sedimentation is largely determined by factors including the timing of rainfall events, the allocation of water between users, and the value of alternative land uses. Furthermore, the upland agricultural landscapes of Bohol are diverse and complex, with numerous sources and filters of sediment. A terrain analysis model was used to model the impact of incremental adoption of Landcare practices within the landscape. The results show that the spatial distribution of adoption is likely to be as important as the extent of adoption when it comes to delivering off-site benefits. The aggregate level of losses avoided as a result of Landcare was estimated to be around PHP 1,023,000 (AUD 26,900) over a 20-year period at a discount rate of five per cent. The results of the livelihood analysis and watershed modelling were combined in a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and compared to the costs of the projects and other investments that have helped bring about the impacts. The results showed a positive but small NPV of around PHP 3.5 million, equating to around AUD 91,000, for the 20 year period simulated, using a 5 per cent discount rate. The sunk costs of the early phases of theLandcare Program, however, continue to provide the basis for ongoing livelihood projects that utilise farmer groups as a means of extension. Furthermore, when the expansion of the Program into other nearby municipalities can draw on the original research or learning hub, rapid adoption can be achieved at relatively low cost and provide a significant return on investment. Overall, the evidence presented indicates that the net economic impacts of the Landcare Program in Bohol are positive, even when taking into account the prior investment in research and training. The major beneficiaries of the Program are the individual households who adopt the conservation farming practices, with these benefits largely generated by the farming opportunities stemming from improved soil stability. The diversification and commercialisation of the upland component of the farming system has mainly utilised land and labour at low opportunity cost, though limited access to these resources prevents some households from proceeding along the identified farm development pathway. The focus on livelihood development does not deny the seriousness of downstream watershed problems arising from upland agriculture. However, it is agued that given the relativity of on-site and off-site benefits, the focus and primary justification of the Landcare Program should remain on improving the productivity and livelihoods of upland farmers through facilitated, farmer-led, group-based research and extension, with these downstream impacts being seen as side benefits of what is essentially a livelihoods program.

This study represents a quest to find answers to the complex problem of rural land degradation in Australia. Despite significant investment in environmental improvement programs and community based natural resource management interventions, the problem of land and water degradation continues. A key intervention in Australia has been the Landcare program, which has experienced much success in engaging a large sector of the rural population in addressing the problem. Additionally, the Australian Government has and continues to make significant investment in the Landcare program as well as directly to rural land managers through a range of extension and incentive mechanisms and increasingly through market-based instruments. Whilst financial, human and knowledge capital investment in such interventions appear to have an influence on their success, it is the social and cultural factors that seem to be a downfall. This study investigated this problem through a case study conducted in Gippsland, in the state of Victoria. Through a multi-methods approach guided by foundations of critical realism and influenced by grounded theory, this primarily qualitative study yielded rich insights into the inner workings of Landcare and the values, drivers and motivators of rural landholders and the institutional staff who work with them. Through five research cycles the study explored the health and function of 16 Landcare Groups; three examples of community-based projects which sought to improve Landcare group capacity and the views of 46 landholders and 31 institutional staff on values, drivers and intervention design. A sixth research cycle provided a synthesis of the findings of the first five cycles to develop a conceptual model of community intervention and change which was tested with a sample of the study’s informants. Emerging as key insights was the role that ownership, social capital and empowerment play in the success of group based community projects. On an individual level, values of landholders, including strong land ownership values and motivations are a key to practice change. This is also mediated by an individual’s access to various forms of capital to undertake farm management activities including altering practices towards environmental sustainability. The outcome of the study, the model of community intervention and change provide a series of critical ‘states’, ‘stages’ and ‘transitions’ to the process of individual and/or group change and empowerment. The study conclusions point out the complexities of the problem of land degradation when it is realised that the role of people is critical to its solution. The study provides insight into the essential components of interventions which are required to attain success.

This study represents a quest to find answers to the complex problem of rural land degradation in Australia. Despite significant investment in environmental improvement programs and community based natural resource management interventions, the problem of land and water degradation continues. A key intervention in Australia has been the Landcare program, which has experienced much success in engaging a large sector of the rural population in addressing the problem. Additionally, the Australian Government has and continues to make significant investment in the Landcare program as well as directly to rural land managers through a range of extension and incentive mechanisms and increasingly through market-based instruments. Whilst financial, human and knowledge capital investment in such interventions appear to have an influence on their success, it is the social and cultural factors that seem to be a downfall. This study investigated this problem through a case study conducted in Gippsland, in the state of Victoria. Through a multi-methods approach guided by foundations of critical realism and influenced by grounded theory, this primarily qualitative study yielded rich insights into the inner workings of Landcare and the values, drivers and motivators of rural landholders and the institutional staff who work with them. Through five research cycles the study explored the health and function of 16 Landcare Groups; three examples of community-based projects which sought to improve Landcare group capacity and the views of 46 landholders and 31 institutional staff on values, drivers and intervention design. A sixth research cycle provided a synthesis of the findings of the first five cycles to develop a conceptual model of community intervention and change which was tested with a sample of the study’s informants. Emerging as key insights was the role that ownership, social capital and empowerment play in the success of group based community projects. On an individual level, values of landholders, including strong land ownership values and motivations are a key to practice change. This is also mediated by an individual’s access to various forms of capital to undertake farm management activities including altering practices towards environmental sustainability. The outcome of the study, the model of community intervention and change provide a series of critical ‘states’, ‘stages’ and ‘transitions’ to the process of individual and/or group change and empowerment. The study conclusions point out the complexities of the problem of land degradation when it is realised that the role of people is critical to its solution. The study provides insight into the essential components of interventions which are required to attain success.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Western Sydney, 1998. / "Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, November 1998" Bibliography : p. 347-368.

This thesis seeks to understand and improve the effectiveness of partnerships formed by industry, community and government members of natural resource management (NRM) groups. The increasing popularity of partnership-based approaches to NRM is reflected in the rise of landcare, catchment management and other social mobilisation approaches throughout Australia and overseas. This thesis uses critical ethnographic methods to identify the characteristics of effective NRM partnerships and the factors influencing their effectiveness. This research also investigates appropriate methods for evaluating the effectiveness of such relationships and for determining when working in partnership with others may be the most appropriate response to a given NRM problem and context. The critical intent of the study means that it sought not only to understand the nature of such issues but also sought to enlighten and empower participants to improve the practice of partnerships in natural resource management. These characteristics and factors are analysed from three perspectives: the coordinators employed to broker and facilitate community-based NRM groups, the groups themselves and individual group members. This was done in order to reflect the importance of the continuous (re)negotiation of power that characterises long-term group relationships. It also enabled theories of power, cultural transformation, citizen participation, social capital and social learning to be used in the analysis of the NRM partnerships investigated in this study. These concepts were used to develop three tools for analysing NRM partnerships: a pendulum of citizen participation, an NRM citizen participation decision tree, and an NRM partnership typology. The study is based upon the analysis of nineteen cases, predominantly in South East Queensland, which were selected as examples of successful and effective NRM partnerships on the basis of referrals from regional managers and coordinators from State and Local Government. The research design was 'T' shaped, with Phase 1 of the study providing breadth through the analysis of fifteen partnerships. Depth was achieved in Phases 2 and 3. Phase 2 was a long-term ethnographic case study of one catchment management group while Phase 3 comprised a detailed analysis of three issue-specific partnerships formed by this group. These three phases concentrated on the viewpoint of coordinators, NRM groups and participants, respectively. Data on each of the nineteen cases were collected through interviews, field observations, workshops, document analyses and a short questionnaire. Data were analysed qualitatively. All data records were systematically coded to reveal themes and concepts relating to the research objectives from the viewpoints of coordinators, NRM groups and participants. Coding also revealed implications for governments seeking to enter into or to facilitate partnerships with others. The coding and interpretation of this data revealed a suite of twelve characteristics typical of effective natural resource management partnerships. These fell into five groups: (i) definitional characteristics (relating to effectiveness and shared power and responsibility) (ii) relationship characteristics (focusing on social capital building processes; communication; processes for knowledge acquisition and social learning; shared values, intent, action and risk-taking) (iii) participant characteristics (high levels of motivation and realistic expectations); (iv) a context characteristic (that the context is appropriate for a partnership) and (v) an 'outsider' perception characteristic (that the partnership is perceive positively by outsiders). A comparative analysis of cases reveals that only one of the nineteen cases exhibited all twelve characteristics. Importantly, three of these characteristics are not mentioned in the literature reviewed for this thesis. Two of these, share values and shared intent are relationship characteristics. Study findings emphasise that effective NRM partnerships are built on good personal relationships, based on shared values and intent. The third new characteristic is that people outside the partnership should perceive the relationship favourably. Since funds and other resources may be under the control of people outside a partnership, it is important that participants are able to effectively communicate their shared values and intent to others. Five factors were found to be significant in the development of effective partnerships (i) the need for participants and those brokering partnerships to realize that effective partnerships are built on positive personal relationships in which (ii) participants have high levels of motivation for being involved, particularly early in the relationship. The study further revealed that such relationships: (iii) need to be supported by a continuity of adequate funding and resources and (iv) the services of skilled, enthusiastic coordinators who (v) enjoy and are skilled at working in 'grey areas', the constantly changing social and organizational environment that is typical of NRM groups. These findings of the study are synthesized through a critical ethnography which depicts three years in the life of a typical, yet hypothetical, NRM group, the Armstrong Narrows-Yarooba Catchment Management Group (ANY Group). Based on the literature review and the analysis of results from this study, this composite story protects the anonymity of those who have participated in this research. Each of the three vignettes that make up this story contains two sections -As it was and As it could be. This 'double take approach' highlights the critical nature of the ethnography, emphasising how the development of collaborations and partnerships among members of NRM groups may be improved and evaluated. Coordinators, NRM group members and agencies supporting their efforts may use this ethnography as a basis for reflection and deliberation on the development of effective partnerships in natural resource management. Recommendations for how different stakeholders in NRM partnerships may develop the effectiveness of the partnerships they form are provided.

This thesis examines the responses of non-indigenous pastoralists in Central Australian rangelands to two social movements that profoundly challenge their occupancy, use and management of land. Contemporary environmentalism and Aboriginal land rights have both challenged the status of pastoralists as valued primary producers and bearers of a worthy pioneer heritage. Instead, pastoralists have become associated with land degradation, biodiversity loss, and Aboriginal dispossession. Such pressure has intensified in the 1990s in the wake of the native Title debate, and various conservation campaigns in the arid and semi-arid rangelands. The pressure on pastoralists occur in the context of wider reassessment of the social and economic values or rangelands in which pastoralism is seen as having declined in value compared to ???post-production??? land uses. Reassessments of rangelands in turn are part of the global changes in the status of rural areas, and of the growing flexibility in the very meaning of ???rural???. Through ethnographic fieldwork among largely non-indigenous pastoralists in Central Australia, this thesis investigates the nature and foundations of pastoralists??? responses to these changes and critiques. Through memory, history, labour and experience of land, non-indigenous pastoralists construct a narrative of land, themselves and others in which the presence of pastoralism in Central Australia is naturalised, and Central Australia is narrated as an inherently pastoral landscape. Particular types of environmental knowledge and experience, based in actual environmental events and processes form the foundation for a discourse of pastoral property rights. Pastoralists accommodate environmental concerns, through advocating environmental stewardship. They do this in such a way that Central Australia is maintained as a singularly pastoral landscape, and one in which a European, or ???white???, frame of reference continues to dominate. In this way the domesticated pastoral landscapes of colonialism and nationalism are reproduced. The thesis also examines Aboriginal pastoralism as a distinctive form of pastoralism, which fulfils distinctly Aboriginal land use and cultural aspirations, and undermines the conventional meaning of ???pastoralism??? itself. The thesis ends by suggesting that improved dialogue over rangelands futures depends on greater understanding of the details and complexities of local relationships between groups of people, and between people and land.