This quantitative study derived from an on-going federal experimental research project targeting Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs) receiving services in four program models: control/experimental transitional bilingual education (TBE) and control/experimental structured English immersion (SEI). The purpose of my study was (a) to capture the growth trajectory and rate of oral English acquisition, (b) to investigate the role of oral English development in acquiring English reading skills, and (c) to compare program models in order to identify practices that promote ELLs’ English oral and reading competency at the early elementary level. Structural equation modeling was utilized. Participants consisted of 534 Spanish-speaking ELLs who started at kindergarten and continued through first grade in their respective models. Striking similarities were found among the four instructional models that English oral proficiency improved significantly (p < .05) in a linear fashion over two years. However, the magnitude differed in that the experimental TBE demonstrated a steeper growth (p < .025) than that of the control group that started at the same level. Even though experimental SEI group started at a much lower level in oral English, they progressed at a rate significantly higher (p < .05) than that of the control group. In relation to English reading comprehension, for experimental SEI groups, the initial level of English oral proficiency is of great concern in reading achievement (p < .05). For both TBE groups, effective intervention is desired because the growth of English oral proficiency strongly impacts reading achievement (p < .05), and, in addition, initial level strongly predicts reading comprehension. The intervention was successfully implemented so that students advanced to a substantial amount in academic English oray. It is also evident that first language (L1) instruction did not impede the learning of a second language. On the contrary, for those students receiving a larger proportion of L1 instruction, alterations in program models are needed to nurture English oracy at a faster rate of growth, which in turn facilitates English literacy acquisition. Findings also indicate that without effective English intervention, students placed in control TBE classrooms remain below all the students in oral English proficiency.

Curriculum-based measurement in writing (CBM-W) has been proposed as a means of screening general education and special education students for writing difficulties and as a tool for monitoring the progress of struggling writers. CBM-W involves the administration of multiple probes of equivalent difficulty over time to monitor student progress toward academic standards (McMaster & Espin, 2007). The purpose of this study was to determine the technical adequacy of multiple CBM-W measures and how well the measures predicted writing performance. Additionally, this study examined how well CBM-W measures predicted student growth in writing over time. This study also extended the work of previous research by including a sample of 5th grade Hispanic students (n = 167), including English language learners (ELLs), former ELLs who were being monitored, ELLs with disabilities, and non-ELLs. Students were given story starters and completed narrative writing samples that were scored using words written (WW), words spelled correctly (WSC), correct word sequences (CWS), and correct minus incorrect word sequences (CIWS). The criterion measure was the Test of Written Language, Fourth Edition (TOWL-4). Results indicated inconsistent alternate-forms reliability for WW and WSC, and high alternate-forms reliability for CWS and CIWS. CWS and CIWS were the best predictors of one-time writing performance on the TOWL-4 for the overall sample, ELLs, former ELLs on first year monitor status, and ELLs with disabilities. CBM-W was not a significant predictor of student growth over time for most scoring procedures. However, a promising finding is that the scoring procedure of CWS was a significant predictor of student growth for the overall sample and for former ELLs on first year monitor status. Limitations, practical implications and future research will be discussed. / text

Contributing to a more detailed understanding of heritage language (HL) learner levels of Spanish competence, this study examines the first-person singular Spanish pronominal subject expression by 17 HL learners across three levels of proficiency in oral interviews – as rated by modified ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines: intermediate (n = 3), intermediate-advanced (n = 4), and advanced (n = 10). Using a variationist approach, I analyze five conditioning variables (including discourse function and verb class) that have been found to affect pronominal expression in native speaker Spanish (Bentivoglio, 1980; Cameron, 1992, 1994; Cacoullos & Travis, 2010; Otheguy et al, 2007; Silva-Corvalán, 1989, 2001; Travis, 2005, 2007), as well as two additional variables (correct verbal inflection and presence of hesitation phenomena) seen in second language acquisition studies. Following theories of interface vulnerability (cf. Montrul, 2011b; Sorace, 2004, 2005; Sorace & Serratrice 1995), I hypothesized that the incremental development of sensitivity to conditioning variables would be reflective of the complexity of the interface at which the variable is conditioned. Based on previous studies of HL leaners (Montrul, 2004; Montrul & Rodríguez-Louro, 2006) and second language learners (Geeslin & Gudmestad, 2010a, Rothman, 2007a, 2007b, 2009), I predicted that the variables related to the more vulnerable and complex interface of syntax-discourse/pragmatics would be acquired only by the advanced proficiency group. My analysis indicated that HL pronominal expression is in free variation and unconstrained by any of the interface-related variables at the intermediate-advanced proficiency level. Neither the intermediate-advanced nor the advanced proficiency level HL leaners showed native-like sensitivity to variables conditioned at the syntax-discourse/pragmatic interface. Importantly, the only variable that was significant in first-person singular subject expression by HL leaners of all proficiency levels was the presence of hesitation phenomena. These results support the claim (Evans, 1985; Fehringer & Fry, 2007; Kormos, 1999; Riazantseva, 2001; van Hest 1996a, 1996b; Verhoeven, 1989) of a relationship between hesitation phenomena in oral speech and anxiety and increased processing demands while speaking the heritage language. Comparing the results across three proficiency levels, I analyze when and to what degree HL learners show sensitivity to these variables. The findings illustrate the benefits of extending the application of sociolinguistic methodology (specifically the comparative multivariable analysis and the stepwise logistic regression procedure) to HL and second language acquisition studies because it facilitates a fine-grained examination and comparison of leaners across proficiency levels. / text

English language learners (ELLs) are the fastest growing group of learners in U.S. schools. In recent years, much of this growth has occurred in parts of the U.S. with historically smaller immigrant populations. Secondary ELLs in particular are entering middle and high schools that are often underprepared and ill-equipped to meet these students’ academic and linguistic needs. In addition to learning social English, ELLs must also master the academic language and content necessary to succeed in their content-area classes. This report reviews current research on content-area instruction in math, science, and social studies for secondary ELLs. More specifically, within each content area, key findings are summarized from articles that address the following topics: the linguistic challenges of learning content for ELLs; the implementation of pedagogical approaches to teaching content to ELLs; and teachers’ challenges and needs. The report concludes with recommendations for pedagogy, practice, and professional development as well as suggestions for future research. / text

In an era of rapid charter school growth, this study sought to examine rational decision making for special populations in Texas urban charter schools. To investigate differences among charters, I categorized the schools into three groups: network corporate charters, community corporate charters, and intergovernmental charters. Quantitative analysis, including the use of ANOVAs and Tukeys, helped identify differences in expenditures among the three charter groups. Intergovernmental charters focused their spending on teachers and student programs, including programs for students with disabilities and ESL and bilingual programs. Community corporate charters spent less in most categories, except, in the majority of years, for social work, food services, cocurricular activities, and data processing. Network charters channeled their funding into areas such as school leadership, facilities, security and monitoring, and accelerated education. I then used qualitative analysis to understand how charter school administrators decide to spend their money in a way that is most cost-effective for their operations relative to their student populations. I completed 20 interviews with charter school administrators in four Texas cities. Administrators in charters were aware of the competitive accountability and fiscal environment in which they were running their schools. This resulted in cost-effective rational decision making. Charter administrators were also under significant financial stress and did not believe that their schools were adequately funded, though some charters still sought to make a profit or increase their net assets. To make up the difference in funding, some charters have relied on grants and donations from other corporations. Administrators also discussed special populations of students, such as ESL/bilingual students and students with disabilities. / text

Competence with oral narrative discourse is associated with both reading comprehension and academic achievement in general. However, most research on narratives has been conducted with monolingual English speaking children and the theoretical frameworks used to measure narrative skills are predominantly based on what is known about the narrative skills of this population. There has been much less research examining the narrative skills of English language learners (ELLs) and how to best assess these skills. This exploratory study examined the characteristics of the English oral narratives of Spanish-speaking ELLs (SS-ELLs). The narrative data are a subset of data collected as part of a model demonstration project conducted by faculty from The University of Texas in partnership with a central Texas school district. The student sample included 42 SS-ELLs enrolled in a bilingual second grade classroom. Transcripts of stories told in response to a picture prompt were coded and analyzed according to three narrative scoring systems: story grammar analysis, Narrative Assessment Profile, and Narrative Scoring Scheme. Results of these analyses were used to: 1) describe the qualities of the English oral stories of Spanish-speaking ELLs in terms of their organization and production; 2) examine how each scoring system characterizes the sample in terms of expected performance according to its criteria; 3) identify the stable features of narratives whose performance is rated consistently across measures and aspects of scoring systems that are well matched and mismatched to evaluate those features; and 4) identify characteristics of scoring systems that produce information that is useful to instructional planning for SS-ELLs in ESL settings. Recommendations for analyzing the oral narratives of SS-ELLs in ways that are reliable and useful to instructional planning are offered. / text

The term heritage language (HL), which only emerged in the context of language policy during the 1990’s, refers to immigrant, refugee, and indigenous languages whose target group of learners have either previously learned the language as a first language (L1) or home language, or have some form of heritage connection to the language (Cummins, 2005). The bilingual nature of these individuals is ambiguous, as variables related to literacy and oral proficiency in the first language are significantly influenced by geographical, cultural, academic, and sociolinguistic factors prevalent to the context in which the speaker is situated. The topic of HL is the subject of a growing number of studies in second language acquisition as well as bilingual education. Given that an increasing number of immigrants from around the world continue to make the United States their place of permanent residence, the country’s educational focus needs to take into account the needs of heritage language learners (HLL), especially as that focus shifts from the exclusive teaching of foreign languages to incorporating the maintenance and linguistic competence of our multilingual inhabitants. / text

This study highlights the complexities associated with learning a heritage language (HL) abroad, specifically with regard to identity, expectations, and beliefs about language and language learning, by examining the ways that HL learners talk about themselves. These are important topics to study because perceptions of language learning have been shown to influence language acquisition in the study abroad context (Wilkinson, 1998). In addition, study abroad programs are becoming more popular and so are attempts to design language courses to meet the unique needs of HL learners. The study explores the experiences of 17 HL learners who chose to study abroad in 2007 or 2008 to improve their HL proficiency. These HL learners had at least a basic ability to comprehend and communicate in the language that their parents or grandparents speak natively, and were themselves dominant in English. The participants included 5 males and 12 females who went abroad to 14 different countries to study Spanish (7), Hebrew (1), Tigrinya (1), French (1), German (1), Korean (1), Cantonese (1), or Mandarin (4). Data collected include 17 hours of interviews both before and after the sojourns, 34 email reflections written while abroad, blog entries, and a focus group. Data were analyzed using discursive psychology, which views discourse as being variable, co-constructed, purposeful, and context-dependent. By analyzing the data to find the interpretive repertoires, ideological dilemmas, and subject positions used (Reynolds & Wetherell, 2003; Edley, 2001), a deeper understanding of studying abroad as a HL learner was attained. Findings include that the participants lack interpretive repertoires to discuss their HL and being a HL learner, used their HL as a resource to access other learning opportunities while abroad, encountered difficulties fully immersing themselves in the HL while abroad, received insufficient pre-departure support from the study abroad offices, and had backgrounds and HL learning experiences that varied considerably. The study's findings have implications for what topics to cover in classes and study abroad advising sessions that may help HL learners make decisions about where to study abroad, as well as help students process the experiences they have learning their HL and studying abroad. / text

Today's classrooms have a significant diversity of learners who are expected to engage in similar academic activities and meet common standards of academic competency irrespective of their individual differences. As a result, for many students, school is a challenging endeavor that elicits emotional responses ranging from low self-efficacy to frustration, stress and anxiety. Research has shown that factors such as students' motivation and teachers' beliefs are important influencers of classroom achievement. These factors determine students' persistence towards their academic goals as well as the standards teachers set. This report reviews the literature on major constructs of motivation and teacher beliefs specifically with different learners, that is second language learners and students with learning disabilities. A proposal of a synthesis model is offered, with the primary objective of depicting the influence of teacher beliefs and student motivation on learning process and performance outcomes among different learners. / text

Children learn language through experience by hearing and speaking the target language (Lany & Gomez, 2008; Rinaldo & Caselli, 2008). Children with different levels of experience with English would be expected to perform differently on linguistic tasks, including grammatical performance, depending on the amount of experience they have with English. Previous studies have found differences in grammatical performance depending on the amount of English the child speaks at home and school and socioeconomic status (SES) (Gathercole, 2002a; 2002b). DeBot (2000) proposes an adaptation of Levelt’s (1993) blueprint of the speaker, where he postulates that individuals who have more experience with a second language will present with less influence from the first language. The current study aims to evaluate changes made from pre-test to post-test, as well as performance at pre-test and post-test in the use of grammatical and Spanish-influenced utterances by Spanish-English bilingual children with different amounts of experience with English. We also evaluated the grammaticality of the Spanish-influenced utterances produced. Eighty-four Spanish-English bilingual kindergarten age children with typically developing language participated in the pre-test, narrative intervention, and post-test. Children’s current use of English ranged from 3% to 100% of the time during a typical week, based on parent and teacher reports. We also evaluated the role of mother SES (using weighted values for mother’s level of education and mother’s occupation); scores ranged from 0 to 58. Consistent with predictions from DeBot’s (2000) adaptation of Levelt’s (1993) blueprint of the speaker, results show that experience with English did make a difference in performance. Children who had more experience with English produced more grammatical utterances and fewer Spanish-influenced utterances. Overall, a small amount of Spanish-influenced utterances were used, but when Spanish-influenced utterances were used, they were more likely to be ungrammatical. Consistent with previous studies, experience appears to be predictive of performance in the use of grammatical and Spanish-influenced utterances in English. Clinically, results demonstrate the importance of understanding the client’s experience with English when evaluating language performance. Future studies are needed to determine if similar patterns are evident in bilingual children with language impairment. / text