Submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Linguistics in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Zululand, 2005. / In 1994 South Africa gained democracy. A new dispensation had to emerge in almost all spheres of life. The constitution that was drawn does not only guarantee, but also promotes and celebrates a South African linguistic diversity - a different approach of the apartheid years. Every educational institution in the country is expected to be engaged in rethinking policy on all aspects of learning. It is, therefore, proper to consider possibilities for and the limitations of language learning in South African schools. The main aim of this research was to look at the role the indigenous languages may play in early education and that of English as a complementary language, along with other languages in public life in South Africa. School governing bodies (SGBs) were and still are expected to know the pedagogical implications of language learning and acquisition, that is; if children are denied their first language during their formative early years and are not yet fluent enough in their home language, their second language learning and acquisition is bound to suffer and that in the long run thus rendering their cognitive development irretrievably inhibited. The development of these children's additional language/s becomes hampered and negatively affected. For young linguistically developing children the language taught and the language used daily or at home must be the same for a number of years until a firm grounding in the first language is achieved. It is after this firm grounding then that a gradual introduction of another language should take place. Since South Africa belongs to a wider family, the global technological world; it needs to accept the hegemony and usefulness of English as an international language. Access to English has to be facilitated for all learners in this country. Mastery of English in particular or any other additional language in general depends on a firm mastery of one's home language. It is therefore quite disturbing to witness that the majority of school governing bodies (SGBs) are not informed about this responsibility of ensuring that their children learn in the language that has a potential for their cognitive development. In practice very few schools have taken this language responsibility seriously. In fact one doubts whether school governing bodies (SGBs) know of this responsibility. Languages taught and learnt currently were taught and learnt during the apartheid years. This is due to the fact that the majority of schools do not have an informed democratic language policy. The findings * of the present investigation present a number of recommendations and educational implications. The major findings include: 1. Awareness campaigns about the sensitive issue of languages to be embarked upon by the state and all its departments led by the Department of Education both nationally and provincially. 2. In all schools, learners should have access to, and be required to learn, at least a minimum of three (major) languages as subjects and/or as languages of learning. One of these languages should be an African language used in that particular province (e.g. IsiZulu in KwaZulu-Natal). 3. Languages chosen by the schools to reflect the language spoken by the institutional community (staff and learners) as well as the broader community within which the institution is located. 4. Curriculum designers to seriously consider improving both the content and the methodologies of teaching languages, particularly the indigenous languages, which still suffer from marginalisation. 5. The state to provide and allocate resources to ensure the equal development of all the (major) languages of South Africa. 6. No learner to be refused admission on the basis of a lack of language proficiency. 7. Schools to draw and publicise their language polices for everyone to see in their respective premises. 8. Cultural groups, institutions of higher learning as well as non¬governmental organisations, with diversity in mind, should pursue, promote, market and uplift all major South African languages to a level where even foreign countries are interested in studying these languages. These are the crucial recommendations the present investigation came up with. It is hoped that these recommendations would go a long way in ensuring a smooth transition of our learners from their home languages to additional languages, particularly English. The adherence to these recommendations may also help the majority of South African citizens to participate fully in their society and their economy through equitable and meaningful access to education. This study concludes by stating that the primacy of the mother-tongue in early education is a base for language transfer and hence, successful education in higher education. The mastery of English in particular or any other additional language in general, depends on a firm mastery of one's home language.

Previous research indicates that former schooling is an important factor to shape teachers' beliefs about teaching; teachers change the way they teach when their beliefs about foreign language teaching change. However, little research has discovered direct evidence concerning the processes that effect change in teacher beliefs. This study investigated the relationship between teachers' pedagogical paradigms and practices in Chinese language classrooms. Specifically, a qualitative analysis of educated teachers born in China examined how early pedagogical frames were formed, and then transformed in the context of American classrooms. Results of this study indicate that early schooling, language learning, and initial teaching experiences have a powerful effect on Chinese teachers' epistemological beliefs and pedagogical practices. Indeed, embedded and unexamined beliefs can inhibit effective teaching of Chinese language and lead to traditional behaviorist-centered learning approaches. However, these data indicate that critical reflection on preconceptions, beliefs, values, principles, and practices can become a precursor for constructivist and transformational Chinese language teaching and learning. The Lin Transformational Teaching and Professional Development Model demonstrates how traditional Chinese language approaches can be transformed into more effective epistemological and pedagogical strategies through assessment and reframing, consideration of cultural contexts, incorporation of diversity, and inclusion of continual professional reflection. Implications of the Lin Model to increase teacher competence and learner proficiency are recommended in four areas (individual professional development, collaborative professional development, teacher training programs, and students of Chinese) and are applicable to three different types of departments: foreign languages and literatures, applied linguistics, and education.

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Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The issue of whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses should carry undergraduate degree credit has been long-debated. The current work attempts to demonstrate that these courses should contribute toward degree requirements in the same way that other foreign language courses do, on the basis of curricular consistency in liberal arts, language, and academic mission, as well as in keeping with goals toward multiculturalism and internationalization. Utilizing a review of existing EAP or English as a Second Language (ESL) course credit structures at 41 U.S. universities, and a survey of ESL/EAP program administrators, recommendations are made for proposing degree credit for EAP courses. Finally, a proposal is included for changing the EAP course credit structure at Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Esta investigación pretende investigar si hay un tipo específico de ansiedad relacionada al aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras y también mostrar que esta ansiedad tiene un efecto en las maneras en que los alumnos aprenden y las notas que obtienen. Basándose en estudios previos, se realiza una investigación original que explora la combinación de estilos de aprendizaje y estilos de enseñanza y el efecto que pueda tener en las calificaciones de los alumnos. Se da a los alumnos encuestas sobre la ansiedad dos veces y otra encuesta sobre sus estilos de aprendizaje mientras se da a los instructores una encuesta sobre sus estilos de enseñanza. Se examinan los resultados de los cuestionarios juntos a las calificaciones globales al fin del curso para determinar si existe ansiedad en el aula y si había combinaciones apropiadas entre instructores y alumnos. Los resultados demuestran que la ansiedad de aprender lenguas extranjeras existe para una porción de alumnos, pero la mayoría de ellos no tenían experiencias con esta ansiedad. Los estilos personales de la enseñanza de las instructoras combinaron en una manera natural con los estilos del aprendizaje de los alumnos. Los alumnos tenían éxito en sus clases de lenguas extranjeras porque muchas de las calificaciones eran superiores a 80% para el semestre.

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One of the primary goals of second-language study is to build language proficiency. The use of small-group and pair instruction has been promoted as an alternative to large-group instruction and as an avenue for the accomplishment of the goal of becoming proficient in a second language. In this study, three elementary-school French classes were observed and videotaped on five occasions each for a total of 15 observations. Analysis involved determining if students were engaged, and whether they were engaged in writing, speaking, listening, thinking, and reading. It was also noted whether or not students were participants in one of three group contexts: pairs, small groups, or large groups. Video-recordings were transcribed and coded using the Foreign Language Observational System (FLOS) developed by Nerenz and Knop (1982). Of the 6,800 occurrences coded for data analysis, 98% (n = 6,674) were instances when students were engaged in the large-group context where more writing (32%, n = 2,116) occurred than any of the activities identified for investigation. The greatest amount of nonengagement occurred in the large group and consisted of managerial activities, for instance, waiting for the teacher to distribute materials 32% (n = 40), interim transitional activities 20% (n = 25), and offtask when students were not engaged with a classroom curricular task (30%, n = 23). An ANOVA detected that statistically significant differences (p < .01) exist within the small [F(4,68 = 5.53] and large [F(4,68) = 13.26] groups for time spent engaged among the activities under investigation: writing, speaking, listening, thinking, and reading. No differences were found within the pair group among the activities in the study (F = 0.84). Further data analysis indicated statistically significant (p < .01) differences among the groups on time spent writing [F(2,34) = 22.90], speaking [F(2,34) = 5.59], thinking [F(2,34) = 10.88], and reading [F(2,34) = 9.58]. No differences were found between the groups for the listening activity (F = 0.96). Duncan Post Hoc Comparison Tests were used to determine where there were significant differences between the means for each main effect. An examination of the results of the Duncan Tests revealed that in this study students were most often instructed in the large-group context. The tests also showed that there was more writing than speaking, listening, thinking, or reading done in the large group. More reading than speaking, listening, or thinking was done in the small group. In sum, students in this study were more involved in the large group and did more writing than any of the other four activities. In the small group, there was more reading than speaking, listening, or thinking, and more writing than thinking. / Ed. D.

This study examines student performance in two foreign language programs, partial immersion (content taught through the exclusive use of a second language) and FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary School). Are students who study math, science, and social studies through a second language hampered when compared with their non-immersion peers? Does intensive study of a second language interfere with native language usage? Is partial immersion more effective than FLES in producing fluency in the second language? Normal curve equivalent scores of the California Achievement Test (CAT) were used to measure language arts, reading, and math performance. The North Carolina third grade tests for science and social studies were used to measure mastery of state objectives in those subjects. French listening comprehension skills, and in some cases speaking skills, were assessed through the American Association of Teachers of French (AATF) FLES Test. Mental ability was measured using the CTB-McGraw Hill Test of Cognitive Skills. Separate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) tests were performed for reading, language, math, total battery, science, social studies achievement test response variables. An ANCOVA was also done for French listening skills. A socioeconomic status (SES) Index and IQ scores were used aS covariates in all of these tests. Separate analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were run on each ANCOVA for the purpose of comparison. Number Cruncher Statistical System software was utilized for all computations. Significant main effects are analyzed. The analysis of scores for both treatment groups revealed there was no difference due to treatment in language, reading, mathematics, science, or total battery. Achievement of FLES and partial immersion groups was Similar. After adjustment for SES and IQ, the immersion group scored significantly less than the FLES group in social studies (p < .05). The immersion group scored Significantly higher than the FLES group in French listening skills (p < .0001). The results of this study provide data to school districts interested in elementary foreign language programs. It contributes to the growing body of research in immersion as an educational alternative. / Ed. D.