The feasibility of in-situ alloying of AISI 410L martensitic stainless steel with nitrogen during Nd-YAG laser cladding was investigated with the aim of achieving a nitrogen content of at least 0.08 wt% and fully martensitic microstructures in the final clad deposit. Two in-situ nitrogen alloying techniques were studied. In the first set of experiments, the absorption of nitrogen from nitrogen-rich gas atmospheres was studied. Laser cladding with commercially available AISI 410L powder was performed using nitrogen-rich shielding and carrier gas. A marginal increase in deposit nitrogen content was observed, with the clad deposit displaying low hardness and mostly ferritic microstructures. Poor nitrogen absorption from nitrogen-containing atmospheres during Nd-YAG laser cladding is generally attributed to the short thermal cycle and to suppression of plasma formation above the weld pool. In the remaining experiments, Si3N4 powder was investigated as an alternative source for nitrogen during cladding. The addition of Si3N4 to the AISI 410L powder feed resulted in clad microstructures consisted of columnar -ferrite grains with martensite on the grain boundaries, higher hardness and an increase in deposit nitrogen content (to a maximum of 0.064 wt% nitrogen). Higher nitrogen contents in the clad deposit, however, significantly increased the volume percentage porosity in the clad layer. This prompted an investigation into the feasibility of raising the nitrogen solubility of the alloy through additions of manganese and nickel to the powder feed. Thermodynamic modelling revealed that the addition of manganese to AISI 410L powder increases the nitrogen solubility limit due to its negative interaction parameter with nitrogen. The addition of up to 3.5 wt% manganese to AISI 410L powder containing Si3N4 significantly increased the nitrogen solubility in the deposit. A martensitic microstructure with 0.12 wt% nitrogen and a peak hardness of 410 HV was achieved without any adverse increase in porosity in the clad layer. The clad nitrogen content easily exceeded the minimum requirement of 0.08 wt%. High nickel concentrations in AISI 410L stainless steel expand the austenite phase field at the expense of -ferrite and alter the solidification mode from ferritic to austenitic-ferritic. The addition of up to 5.5 wt% nickel, or combinations of nickel and manganese, to the nitrogen-alloyed AISI 410L powder feed raised the deposit nitrogen content, but not to the same extent as those deposits alloyed with manganese only. Since more austenite is present on cooling in nickel-alloyed AISI 410L deposits, less nitrogen is rejected to the liquid phase on solidification, resulting in higher nitrogen contents and less porosity in the room temperature microstructures. The amount of dilution during single-track laser cladding is mainly influenced by the specific energy per unit mass delivered by the laser beam. The clad height is strongly influenced by the powder deposition rate, whereas the bead width is influenced by the wettability of the deposits during laser cladding. During multi-track cladding, the observed percentage porosity is a function of the aspect ratio of the individual beads making up the clad layer, the deposition rate and the clad height. High deposition rates result in thicker layers, increasing the distance that N2 gas bubbles have to travel to escape to the atmosphere, while a high aspect ratio favours interbead porosity. The results suggest that in-situ nitrogen alloying during laser cladding should preferably be performed at low deposition rates to ensure higher clad nitrogen contents and hardness, lower clad heights, less dilution and less porosity. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / MEng / Unrestricted

Detta arbete undersöker om metoden ’laser cladding’ skulle kunna användas för att möjliggöra återanvändandet av bromsskivor som annars skulle deponeras. Olika material undersöks ur ett miljöperspektiv, det vill säga energiåtgång och CO2-utsläpp jämförs mot en vanlig gjutjärnsskiva. För att göra detta användes programmet CES EduPack samt ytterligare beräkningar med formler som komplement då programmets databas inte är heltäckande gällande specifika materialvarianter. För att lättare kunna beräkna massor användes CAD-programmet Solid Edge för att modellera en typisk bromsskiva. Resultatet blev att laserbeläggning på utslitna bromsskivor sparar på både energi och avger mindre CO2-avtryck, förutsatt att rätt tillsatsmaterial väljs. Som mest kunde en minskning med 80,5% uppnås i energiåtgång respektive 88% för CO2-utsläpp under materialframställning och tillverkning. Metoden medför alltså tydliga positiva miljömässiga effekter. / This report investigates Laser Cladding and especially the possibility to coat worn brake discs. A selection of materials are studied with an environmental point of view in focus, the life cycle of the coated brake discs are compared to a standard new gray cast iron brake disc. The program CES Edupack is used for the life cycle analysis and it is completed by formulas of energy consumption and CO2 footprint because not all processes and materials are included in the software. Solid Edge is used to create a CAD model of a typical brake disc to easily exam the volume and weight of the disc as a function of the thickness. The result is laser cladding on worn brake discs saves energy and produces a smaller carbon footprint if the right powders used for cladding are chosen. Laser cladding with stainless steel powders provided the best results with 80.5% savings in energy consumption and 88% in CO2-footprint savings. The laser cladding technique shows clear positive environmental effects.

The process of laser cladding consists of depositing successive layers of molten metallic powder to create a near-net shape. A high-power laser is used to melt incoming metallic powder, which forms a melt pool on the surface. As the latter moves beneath the laser, this newly created melt pool solidifies. By properly controlling the trajectory of deposition tracks, one can create a diverse range of shapes with varying complexities. However, the process is very sensitive to parameters, requiring constant attention from technicians. This lends itself perfectly to the addition of automatic controllers whereby supervision is minimal. <br /><br /> In this thesis, an optical sensor is developed to monitor the process zone. The sensor will output a measurement of the height of solidified clad, which in turn can be used by a controller to adjust this geometrical feature. The thesis is divided into three main parts, each contributing to the final algorithm. <br /><br /> First, in Chapter 3 an analysis is performed on the light irradiating from the interaction zone (or melt pool). It is stated that the dominating source of light is governed by blackbody radiation from this molten metal. This is confirmed by analyzing a series of images captured through a digital camera, where various narrow bandpass filters were utilized to selectively view a portion of the CCD-sensor's spectrum. This investigation also leads to the selection of bandpass filter such that a stable, relatively intense melt pool is captured through the digital camera's CCD-sensor. <br /><br /> Second, in Chapter 4 the captured images are taken through a pair of image processing techniques, outputting a series of coordinates representating the melt pool's boundary. The image is first analyzed to calculate an optimal threshold level based on the minimization of fuzzy entropy. With this threshold selected, the grayscale image is converted into black-and-white, where the white pixels represent the melt pool. After this step, the melt pool's boundary is extracted through an 8-connectivity border tracing algorithm. This technique outputs a series of coordinates (in pixels) as though one were traveling along the melt pool in a clockwise rotation. <br /><br /> Last, Chapter 5 analyzes these pixel coordinates to extract the melt pool's height. The coordinates are first transformed into real-world coordinates, by use of a perspective transformation. This transformation essentially yields the melt pool's shadow, as created by a light-source coincident with the camera. As a result, the melt pool's height is estimated based upon a right-angle triangle, where the camera's angle is known, and the projected coordinates represent the shadow length (triangle's base). <br /><br /> The result of applying this series of steps to the estimation of clad heights is found at the end of Chapter 5. Results varied dramatically, from 4% error to 393%. Although the errors are large at times, they are mainly caused by a bias in the estimate. That is, the dynamics of the true clad formation are very well predicted by the algorithm, however, shifting by a certain amount. This amount varies both with substrate velocity, and the clad's direction of travel, relative to the camera. A partial explanation is given such that the clad's height is offset from the laser center-point, which is a function of both these parameters. However, the specific relationship requires further experimentation.

The process of laser cladding consists of depositing successive layers of molten metallic powder to create a near-net shape. A high-power laser is used to melt incoming metallic powder, which forms a melt pool on the surface. As the latter moves beneath the laser, this newly created melt pool solidifies. By properly controlling the trajectory of deposition tracks, one can create a diverse range of shapes with varying complexities. However, the process is very sensitive to parameters, requiring constant attention from technicians. This lends itself perfectly to the addition of automatic controllers whereby supervision is minimal. <br /><br /> In this thesis, an optical sensor is developed to monitor the process zone. The sensor will output a measurement of the height of solidified clad, which in turn can be used by a controller to adjust this geometrical feature. The thesis is divided into three main parts, each contributing to the final algorithm. <br /><br /> First, in Chapter 3 an analysis is performed on the light irradiating from the interaction zone (or melt pool). It is stated that the dominating source of light is governed by blackbody radiation from this molten metal. This is confirmed by analyzing a series of images captured through a digital camera, where various narrow bandpass filters were utilized to selectively view a portion of the CCD-sensor's spectrum. This investigation also leads to the selection of bandpass filter such that a stable, relatively intense melt pool is captured through the digital camera's CCD-sensor. <br /><br /> Second, in Chapter 4 the captured images are taken through a pair of image processing techniques, outputting a series of coordinates representating the melt pool's boundary. The image is first analyzed to calculate an optimal threshold level based on the minimization of fuzzy entropy. With this threshold selected, the grayscale image is converted into black-and-white, where the white pixels represent the melt pool. After this step, the melt pool's boundary is extracted through an 8-connectivity border tracing algorithm. This technique outputs a series of coordinates (in pixels) as though one were traveling along the melt pool in a clockwise rotation. <br /><br /> Last, Chapter 5 analyzes these pixel coordinates to extract the melt pool's height. The coordinates are first transformed into real-world coordinates, by use of a perspective transformation. This transformation essentially yields the melt pool's shadow, as created by a light-source coincident with the camera. As a result, the melt pool's height is estimated based upon a right-angle triangle, where the camera's angle is known, and the projected coordinates represent the shadow length (triangle's base). <br /><br /> The result of applying this series of steps to the estimation of clad heights is found at the end of Chapter 5. Results varied dramatically, from 4% error to 393%. Although the errors are large at times, they are mainly caused by a bias in the estimate. That is, the dynamics of the true clad formation are very well predicted by the algorithm, however, shifting by a certain amount. This amount varies both with substrate velocity, and the clad's direction of travel, relative to the camera. A partial explanation is given such that the clad's height is offset from the laser center-point, which is a function of both these parameters. However, the specific relationship requires further experimentation.

[EN] TiAl intermetallic have demonstrated excellent behavior at high temperature, however, the processing for producing coatings is not easy due to its high melting point, otherwise the coaxial laser cladding process promise to be an excellent tool for obtaining extensive overlapping coatings, achieving complete fusion and deposition of alloys with high melting point on surfaces with complex shape. In this work we study the parameters of coaxial laser process and preheating the substrate to achieve Ti48Al2Cr2Nb intermetallic coatings on Ti6Al4V sheet 3 mm thick, in order to improve the tribological, oxidation and corrosion behavior of the Ti6Al4V alloy. The geometrical and chemical dilution analysis of the single tracks obtained at different levels in the laser processing variables were able to identify combinations that minimize defects such as cracks, high dilution and inadequate aspect ratio. It found a direct relation between the cooling rate and the coaxial laser process parameters such as the powder feeding rate and scanning velocity. Thus the process was optimized by minimizing the cooling rate with decreasing the velocity. After this was selected as appropriate preheating temperature 350 ºC and were obtained coatings with 40% overlap, using process parameters which generate laser specific energy of 70, 80, 90 and 180 J/mm2, then they have been evaluated by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Vickers micro-hardness (HV) and nanoindentation. The microstructure of the coatings consists gamma-TiAl phase and alfa2-Ti3Al. Preheating the substrate has allowed obtaining coatings with good metallurgical bond, although cracks and pores are observed for some conditions. It is noted that the expected variation in chemical composition from coating surface to the substrate was found, with low dilution of vanadium. The hardness of the TiAl laser coatings is higher than the substrate and the bending tests results shown that the coatings have good adhesion but with limited ductility. The tribological properties of the coatings shows that in the wear tests at room temperature a lower wear rate is obtained compared to the substrate. In the case of high temperature, the coatings have a lower coefficient of friction; however, a higher wear rate is obtained when compared with the substrate. The coatings have good resistance to oxidation evaluated by isothermal oxidation tests in air at 800 ºC, when compared with the substrate, the thermal growth oxide up to 12 microns thick for 150 hours were obtained. The structure of the oxide layers is complex and comprises the growth of successive layers from the outer surface of the coating. We also studied the electrochemical corrosion behavior of the coatings obtained. The results indicate that the coaxial laser cladding can be a good alternative to obtain extensive TiAl intermetallic coatings, dense coatings with good substrate bonding and minimal defects were obtained, that improve the oxidation and wear behavior of Ti6Al4V alloy. / [ES] Los intermetálicos TiAl han demostrado tener un excelente comportamiento a alta temperatura, sin embargo, su procesado para la obtención de recubrimientos no es sencillo debido a su alto punto de fusión, por otra parte el plaqueado láser coaxial promete ser una excelente herramienta para la obtención de recubrimientos por solape de cordones, logrando la completa fusión y deposición de aleaciones con elevado punto de fusión sobre superficies con forma complejas. En esta tesis se ha estudiado los parámetros de procesado láser coaxial y el precalentamiento del sustrato para lograr recubrimientos con intermetálico Ti48Al2Cr2Nb sobre láminas de Ti6Al4V de 3 mm de espesor, con la finalidad de mejorar el comportamiento tribológico, de oxidación y de corrosión de la aleación Ti6Al4V. Del análisis geométrico y de dilución química de los cordones obtenidos con diversos niveles en las variables de procesado láser se logró identificar combinaciones que minimizan defectos como grietas, alta dilución y relación de aspecto inadecuadas. Se ha encontrado una relación directa entre la velocidad de enfriamiento y los parámetros del proceso láser coaxial, tal como la cantidad de polvo aportado y la velocidad de pasada. De esta manera el proceso ha sido optimizado minimizando la velocidad de enfriamiento con la disminución de la velocidad de pasada. De este análisis se ha seleccionado como temperatura adecuada de precalentamiento 350ºC y se han obtenido recubrimientos con un 40% de solape, utilizando parámetros de proceso que generan energías especificas aportadas por el láser de 70, 80, 90 y 180 J/mm2, los cuales han sido evaluados mediante microscopia óptica (MO), microscopia electrónica de barrido (MEB), difracción de rayos X (DRX), microdureza Vickers (HV) y nanoindentación. La microestructura de los recubrimientos se compone de fases gamma-TiAl y alfa2-Ti3Al. El precalentamiento del sustrato ha permitido la obtención de recubrimientos con buena unión metalúrgica, aunque se observan para algunas condiciones grietas y poros. Se observa que la variación en la composición química de la superficie del recubrimiento al sustrato es la esperada, con baja dilución del vanadio. La dureza de los recubrimientos obtenidos es más alta que la del sustrato, y en los ensayos de flexión se observó que los recubrimientos tienen buena adherencia pero limitada ductilidad. El comportamiento tribológico de los recubrimientos muestra que en los ensayos de desgaste a temperatura ambiente se obtiene una tasa de desgaste menor por parte de los recubrimientos comparados con el sustrato. Para el caso de alta temperatura los recubrimientos presentan un menor coeficiente de fricción, sin embargo, se obtiene una mayor tasa de desgaste cuando se compara con el sustrato. De los ensayos de oxidación isotérmica se observó que los recubrimientos tienen buena resistencia a la oxidación en aire a 800ºC, al compararlos con el sustrato, llegando a obtener capas de óxidos de hasta 12 µm de espesor a 150 horas de oxidación. La estructura de las capas de óxidos es compleja y comprende el crecimiento de capas sucesivas a partir de la superficie externa del recubrimiento. También se ha estudiado el comportamiento a corrosión electroquímica de los recubrimientos obtenidos. Los resultados indican que el plaqueado láser coaxial puede ser una buena alternativa para la obtención de recubrimientos con intermetálicos TiAl, obteniendo recubrimientos densos, con buena unión al sustrato y mínimos defectos, que mejoran el comportamiento ante la oxidación y el desgaste de la aleación Ti6Al4V. / [CAT] Els intermetàl·lics TiAl han demostrat tindre un excel·lent comportament a alta temperatura, però, el seu processat per a l'obtenció de recobriments no és senzill degut al seu alt punt de fusió, d'altra banda el plaquejat làser coaxial promet ser una excel·lent eina per a l'obtenció de recobriments per solapament de cordons, aconseguint la completa fusió i deposició de aliatges amb elevat punt de fusió sobre superfícies amb forma complexes. En aquesta tesi s'ha estudiat els paràmetres de processament làser coaxial i el preescalfament del substrat per aconseguir recobriments amb intermetàl·lic Ti48Al2Cr2Nb sobre làmines de Ti6Al4V de 3 mm de espessor, amb la finalitat de millorar el comportament tribològic, d'oxidació i de corrosió de l'aliatge Ti6Al4V. De l'anàlisi geomètric i de dilució química dels cordons obtinguts amb diversos nivells en les variables de processat làser es va aconseguir identificar combinacions que minimitzen defectes com esquerdes, alta dilució i relació d'aspecte inadequades. S'ha trobat una relació directa entre la velocitat de refredament i els paràmetres del procés làser coaxial, tal com la quantitat de pols aportat i la velocitat de passada. D'aquesta manera el procés ha estat optimitzat minimitzant la velocitat de refredament amb la disminució de la velocitat de passada. D'aquesta anàlisi s'ha seleccionat com a temperatura adequada de preescalfament 350 ºC i s'han obtingut recobriments amb un 40% de solapament, utilitzant paràmetres de procés que generen energies especifiques aportades pel làser de 70, 80, 90 i 180 J/mm2, els quals han estat avaluats mitjançant microscòpia òptica (MO), microscòpia electrònica de rastreig (MER), difracció de raigs X (DRX), microduresa Vickers (HV) i nanoindentació. La microestructura dels recobriments es compon de fases gamma-TiAl i alfa2-Ti3Al. El preescalfament del substrat ha permès l'obtenció de recobriments amb bona unió metal·lúrgica, tot i que s'observen per a algunes condicions esquerdes i porus. S'observa que la variació en la composició química de la superfície del recobriment al substrat és l'esperada, amb baixa dilució del vanadi. La duresa dels recobriments obtinguts és més alta que la del substrat, i en els assajos de flexió es va observar que els recobriments tenen bona adherència però limitada ductilitat. El comportament tribològic dels recobriments mostra que en els assajos de desgast a temperatura ambient s'obté una taxa de desgast menor per part dels recobriments comparats amb el substrat. Per al cas d'alta temperatura, els recobriments presenten un menor coeficient de fricció, però, s'obté una major taxa de desgast quan es compara amb el substrat. Dels assajos d'oxidació isotèrmica es va observar que els recobriments tenen bona resistència a l'oxidació en aire a 800ºC, al comparar-los amb el substrat, arribant a obtenir capes d'òxids de fins a 12 micres de gruix a 150 hores d'oxidació. L'estructura de les capes d'òxids és complexa i comprèn el creixement de capes successives a partir de la superfície externa del recobriment. També s'ha estudiat el comportament a corrosió electroquímica dels recobriments obtinguts. Els resultats indiquen que el plaquejat làser coaxial pot ser una bona alternativa per a l'obtenció de recobriments amb intermetàl·lic TiAl, obtenint recobriments densos, amb bona unió al substrat i mínims defectes, que milloren el comportament davant l'oxidació i el desgast de l'aliatge Ti6Al4V. / Zambrano Carrullo, JC. (2015). Desarrollo y caracterización de recubrimientos TiAl mediante procesado láser coaxial sobre Ti6Al4V [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/56148 / TESIS

This report covers the investigation of the next generation of sensors to be used in the sensor based tube system known as SentusysTM. One essential feature of the next generation of sensors is high-temperature endurance. The sensors (strain gauges and thermocouples) have been produced by means of thermal spraying techniques, short-pulse laser ablation and laser cladding. It has been found that the sensors seem to work in general, however, much research and development remain.

The diploma thesis deals with study of laser cladding technology and possibilities of its use in renovation of casting molds made of hot-work tool steel. The theoretical part describes methods of laser cladding, testing methods and characteristics of the base material and its heat treatment. In the experimental part the test clads, and the metallographic samples were made. The samples were evaluated in terms of macrostructure and microstructure, especially clad geometry, dilution, and defects like pores and cracks. Microhardness was also measured. In conclusion a technical and economic evaluation was performed.

Les superalliages à base de nickel durcis par précipitation γ' et notamment l'Inconel 738 LC (IN738LC), sont des matériaux largement utilisés dans les parties chaudes de turbomoteurs d'avions et d'hélicoptères. Ces matériaux disposent d'excellentes propriétés mécaniques à haute température. Toutefois, des défauts ou des fissures peuvent apparaitre sur ces pièces, lors de leur élaboration par fonderie ou bien pendant leur durée en service, ce qui nécessite leur réparation. Cependant, les pièces constituées en IN738LC sont sujettes à de la fissuration au cours des procédés de réparation de type soudage. Il s'avère que le rechargement laser est une technique de fabrication additive prometteuse permettant de réparer des pièces abimées. Le présent travail consiste en l'étude de la réparabilité par projection de poudre de l'alliage IN738LC réputé non soudable. Cette étude comporte deux volets expérimentaux et numériques du rechargement de pièces en Inconel 738 LC au moyen du procédé CLAD. Pour cela, nous avons réalisé des essais de rechargement suivant plusieurs configurations illustrant les cas de réparations rencontrés industriellement. Deux mécanismes de fissuration distincts sont mis en évidence respectivement dans la zone affectée thermiquement du substrat et dans le dépôt. Une simulation multi-physique est également développée pour rendre compte des phénomènes thermiques, mécaniques et métallurgiques observés lors du rechargement laser. Ces simulations sont comparées à des mesures expérimentales pour validation. Enfin, ces outils de simulation sont utilisés afin de définir des critères numériques de risque de fissuration. En résumé, un préchauffage à haute température permet d'éliminer le risque de liquation et donc de fissures dans la ZAT ainsi que dans les dépôts, ce qui démontre qu'il est possible d'envisager une réparation sur cet alliage réputé non soudable. / Y' hardened nickel-based superalloys, such as Inconel 738 LC (IN738LC), are materials which are extensively used in hot sections parts of helicopter and aircraft engines. Those materials exhibit enhanced mechanical properties at high temperature. Nevertheless, cracking and several defects can occur on these parts during casting or during their service life. However, welding type repairing processes can lead to considerable cracking of IN738LC superalloy. It appears that laser cladding is a promising additive manufacturing technology which allows the repair of damaged parts. The present work main objective is aimed at investigating Inconel 738 LC repair by laser cladding. Both experimental and numerical aspects are studied for the repair of IN738LC by means of the CLAD process. Experimental laser clad deposits are produced under several configurations following industrial cases. Two distinct cracking mechanisms are identified in the heat-affected zone and within the deposit, respectively. A multi-physics simulation of laser cladding is developed in order to take into account thermal, mechanical and metallurgical phenomena. Simulation is compared to experimental measurements for validation. Finally, these numerical tools are used to define cracking risk criteria. In summary, a high preheating of the samples allows to suppress liquation and HAZ cracking, but also to obtain un-cracked deposit, which indicates that the repair of non-weldable alloys is possible.

A newly developed martensitic stainless steel powder, called “powder A”, designed for surface coating with laser cladding and PTA cladding was characterized. The purpose with powder A is to achieve both good corrosion resistance and wear resistance in a stainless steel grade. The investigation of powder A was divided into cladding characterization, microstructural investigation and a property comparison to existing grades 316 HSi and 431 L. Powder A was successfully deposited with laser cladding, exhibiting a wide process window, and PTA cladding. In both cases no preheating was required and no cracks were formed. The microstructure examination indicates that powder A has a martensitic structure possibly containing small amounts of ferrite in the grain boundaries. Thermodynamic calculations in computer software Thermo-Calc 4.1 supported this theory. The microstructure of powder A proved to be very stable over a wide range of cladding parameters. Powder A was significantly harder than 316 HSi and 431 L and had better corrosion resistance than 431 L in a chloride environment. Powder A had similar corrosion properties as 316 HSi in the experiments made .The wear performance of the powder A coatings was similar to 431 L. This was surprising since the hardness of the powder A coatings is significantly higher compared to 431 L.

No description available.