This research presents a regional study of the implementation of the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act (commonly known as the New Poor Law) and its operation in Hertfordshire up to 1847. It examines the economic costs of poor relief across the whole of this rural southern county but it also adopts a microhistory approach to examine in detail how the New Poor Law was implemented and administered in four poor law unions: Hatfield, Hitchin, St Albans and Watford. This study makes national and intra-county comparisons of poor relief data, policy and practice. This research focuses on people as well as place and examines how different groups influenced poor law policy and practice. It makes an important finding about the role played by the second Marquis of Salisbury (a prominent Hertfordshire resident) in the review of the poor laws and the legislation that followed. At the local level this thesis explores the process of implementation and gives new emphasis to the contribution made by the assistant poor law commissioners to both process and policy in the initial years of the New Poor Law. This study is unusual in the attention given to the middlemen of the poor law machinery - the poor law guardians and poor law officers including: medical officers, workhouse masters, relieving officers and schoolmasters and mistresses. This detailed examination of the local guardians challenges the existing historiography on the social demography of this body of men, demonstrates that the influence of elite personnel persisted and adds new data to support the argument that the operation of the poor laws was not just regionally but locally diverse. The workhouse, so symbolic of the New Poor Law and an essential component of the deterrent ideology, is considered in the context of attitudes around its construction and capacity as well as its everyday operation. This thesis adds to the poor law historiography with new data on a previously under-researched area of the country; it provides new information on the development of poor law policy, but more importantly it draws attention to the role of the middlemen and how their individual contributions influenced poor law policy and practice.

The abolition of corporal punishment in S v Williams and Others 1995 (3) SA 632 (CC) provided the state with the impetus to consider alternative sentencing options. Unsystematic efforts by the government to reform the juvenile justice system have failed abysmally. The government was forced to review its policies on juvenile sentencing. An examination of international trends reveals the imposition of stricter measures of punishment for serious and violent juvenile offenders. Community-based sentencing options are used mainly for first-time offenders. The focus has also shifted from punishment and retribution to prevention and treatment. It is advocated that serious and violent juvenile offenders be incarcerated in secure-care facilities and/or juvenile prisons and that community-based sentencing options be utilised for first-time offenders. The government should also design programmes that deal with situations that lead to crime and delinquency / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL.M. (Law)

Text in Afrikaans, abstract in Afrikaans and English / Title page in Afrikaans and English / Die verhandeling handel oor die howe se hantering van testamentere geskrifte wat nie aan die testamentsformaliteite voldoen nie. Die posisie voor die inwerkingtreding van artikel 2(3) word eerste bespreek. Daarna bespreek ek die wysigings wat aanbeveel is deur die regskommissie. Vervolgens bespreek ek die inwerkingtreding van artikel 2(3) wat aan die howe die bevoegdheid gee om 'n testamentere geskrif wat nie aan die formaliteite voldoen nie tot geldige testament te verhef. Die spesifieke probleemareas met die interpretasie van artikel 2(3) word uitgelig en in detail bespreek. Daarna maak ek 'n aanbeveling dat 'n handtekening of merk op 'n testamentere geskrif 'n drempelvereiste moet wees alvorens 'n hof dit kan kondoneer. Ek sluit af met 'n opinie oor hoe die artikel in die toekoms geinterpreteer behoort te word. / The dissertation is about the way in which the courts handle testamentary writings which do not comply with the formalities of a will. Firstly I discuss the position before the implementation of section 2(3). Thereafter I discuss the recommendations of the law commission. Then I discuss the implementation of section 2(3) which empowers the court to legalise a document which does not comply with the formal requirements of a will. The specific problem areas with regard to the interpretation of section 2(3) are highlighted and discussed in detail. Thereafter a recommendation is made that a signature or a mark on a testamentary writing must be a prerequisite before a court can consider condoning it. I conclude my dissertation with an opinion on how this section should be interpreted in the future. / Jurisprudence / LL. M. (Legum)

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls are denied their right to inherit from their husbands and fathers as a result of the operation of the indigenous law rule of male primogeniture, in terms of which an heir must be male. This violates prohibitions on gender discrimination, as well as other, more specific provisions found in international human rights treaties. However, courts in both South Africa and Zimbabwe have in recent years upheld the rule. States Parties to relevant treaties have an obligation to ensure equal inheritance rights for women and girls. In the case of South Africa, provisions of the Constitution are also relevant. After discussing the operation of the indigenous law of inheritance, the international human rights provisions violated by it, as well as the recommendations of the South African Law Commission and legislative proposals on this issue, the writer suggests that legislation should be adopted to ensure equality for women and girls, while retaining the positive aspects of indigenous law and culture. / Constitutional, International & Indigenous Law / LL. M. (Law)

La guerre de 33 jours qui s’est déroulée au Liban en juillet-août 2006 a donné lieu à une panoplie de questions sur la légitimité du recours à l’usage de la force dont a fait preuve Israël au nom de son droit à la légitime défense. La problématique découlait surtout du fait que l’attaque initiale ayant déclenché cette guerre, en date du 12 juillet 2006, avait été menée par le Hezbollah, un groupe armé dont le statut étatique ou non étatique demeure difficile à cerner. Cette étude propose d’analyser si le Liban doit être tenu responsable pour le comportement du Hezbollah. Un survol de l’histoire du Liban et de la création du Hezbollah illustrera que la relation existant entre ces deux acteurs est d’une rare complexité, faisant en sorte que le rôle du Hezbollah au Liban est contesté de toutes parts. Ce débat aura une incidence certaine sur la question à savoir si le comportement du Hezbollah est attribuable à l’État libanais. Une étude approfondie des règles internationales régissant l’acte « d’attribution », notion centrale au droit de la responsabilité internationale des États, démontrera que la détermination de la nature du lien existant entre un État et une entité dont le comportement est contesté est d’une importance fondamentale. Dans une ère où les acteurs non étatiques sont devenus omniprésents sur la scène internationale et dans le cas du Hezbollah au Liban – une milice armée opérant au sein d’un État particulièrement à souveraineté limitée – le concept de l’attribution lui-même deviendra peut-être obsolète. / The 33 days of war that took place in Lebanon in the months of July and August 2006 have given rise to a wide range of questions about the legality of Israel’s use of force on behalf of its so-called right to self-defence. The issue at stake is mostly the result of the fact that the attack which provoked the beginning of the hostilities, on 12 July 2006, was performed by Hezbollah, an armed group whose status as a State or non-State actor remains difficult to pinpoint. This study puts forward the analysis of whether Lebanon must be held accountable for Hezbollah’s actions. A review of the history of Lebanon and of Hezbollah’s creation illustrates that the relationship between these two actors is particularly complex and that Hezbollah’s status is still widely contested. This will directly influence the answer to the question of the attribution of Hezbollah’s actions to the Lebanese State. An in-depth study of the international principles regulating the act of « attribution », a pivotal concept in the international law on the responsibility of States, will reveal that discerning the nature of the link between a State and an entity whose actions are contested is extremely important. In today’s world, where non-State actors have a major role on the international scene, and in the case of Hezbollah in Lebanon – an armed militia operating from within a State with limited sovereignty – the notion of attribution itself might lose much of its significance.

This thesis deals with one of the modern topics of international law - diplomatic protection. It provides for its comprehensive assessment from a wider and deeper perspective on the background of the codification process, which culminated in 2006, when the International Law Commission (ILC) adopted 19 Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. In the current state of international law, diplomatic protection is based on customary international law. It is an instrument to protect nationals (be it a natural or legal person) by their state of nationality, if they injured by another (host) state in violation of international law. Under the current definition, diplomatic protection means the invocation (through peaceful means) by a state of the responsibility of another state for an injury caused to a national by an internationally wrongful act of that another state. The aim of diplomatic protection is to implement this responsibility. The application and exercise of diplomatic protection is considered to be a sovereign, discretional right of the state, although the thesis points out the some recent developments in international law towards the need to recognize the rights and interests of the individual, as well as the constitutional practice of some states guaranteeing its citizens a (domestic) right to...

La guerre de 33 jours qui s’est déroulée au Liban en juillet-août 2006 a donné lieu à une panoplie de questions sur la légitimité du recours à l’usage de la force dont a fait preuve Israël au nom de son droit à la légitime défense. La problématique découlait surtout du fait que l’attaque initiale ayant déclenché cette guerre, en date du 12 juillet 2006, avait été menée par le Hezbollah, un groupe armé dont le statut étatique ou non étatique demeure difficile à cerner. Cette étude propose d’analyser si le Liban doit être tenu responsable pour le comportement du Hezbollah. Un survol de l’histoire du Liban et de la création du Hezbollah illustrera que la relation existant entre ces deux acteurs est d’une rare complexité, faisant en sorte que le rôle du Hezbollah au Liban est contesté de toutes parts. Ce débat aura une incidence certaine sur la question à savoir si le comportement du Hezbollah est attribuable à l’État libanais. Une étude approfondie des règles internationales régissant l’acte « d’attribution », notion centrale au droit de la responsabilité internationale des États, démontrera que la détermination de la nature du lien existant entre un État et une entité dont le comportement est contesté est d’une importance fondamentale. Dans une ère où les acteurs non étatiques sont devenus omniprésents sur la scène internationale et dans le cas du Hezbollah au Liban – une milice armée opérant au sein d’un État particulièrement à souveraineté limitée – le concept de l’attribution lui-même deviendra peut-être obsolète. / The 33 days of war that took place in Lebanon in the months of July and August 2006 have given rise to a wide range of questions about the legality of Israel’s use of force on behalf of its so-called right to self-defence. The issue at stake is mostly the result of the fact that the attack which provoked the beginning of the hostilities, on 12 July 2006, was performed by Hezbollah, an armed group whose status as a State or non-State actor remains difficult to pinpoint. This study puts forward the analysis of whether Lebanon must be held accountable for Hezbollah’s actions. A review of the history of Lebanon and of Hezbollah’s creation illustrates that the relationship between these two actors is particularly complex and that Hezbollah’s status is still widely contested. This will directly influence the answer to the question of the attribution of Hezbollah’s actions to the Lebanese State. An in-depth study of the international principles regulating the act of « attribution », a pivotal concept in the international law on the responsibility of States, will reveal that discerning the nature of the link between a State and an entity whose actions are contested is extremely important. In today’s world, where non-State actors have a major role on the international scene, and in the case of Hezbollah in Lebanon – an armed militia operating from within a State with limited sovereignty – the notion of attribution itself might lose much of its significance.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Universität, Frankfurt am Main, 2006. / Material type: Dissertations. Includes bibliographical references (p. 283-317).

The title of the dissertation: Law of Treaties - subsequent agreements and subsequent practice The topic of the dissertation is the codification of the rules of interpretation of international treaties, with special focus on the phenomenon of subsequent agreements and subsequent practice of the state parties. In its general introductory section, the thesis defines international treaties as a source of international law and presents a comprehensive analysis of methods of interpretation and their codification. The fundamental part is devoted to the subsequent agreements and subsequent practice, their definition, including the difference from other similar methods, and the use of them for the interpretation of treaties before international courts and in international organizations. This thesis also focuses on the issue of evolutionary interpretation. The practical part of the thesis is based on the interpretation of treaties in three branches of international law (investments, cultural cooperation, taxes), with emphasis on the use of subsequent agreements and subsequent practice and on the current developments in the negotiation of new treaties and in the activities of international organizations.

Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls are denied their right to inherit from their husbands and fathers as a result of the operation of the indigenous law rule of male primogeniture, in terms of which an heir must be male. This violates prohibitions on gender discrimination, as well as other, more specific provisions found in international human rights treaties. However, courts in both South Africa and Zimbabwe have in recent years upheld the rule. States Parties to relevant treaties have an obligation to ensure equal inheritance rights for women and girls. In the case of South Africa, provisions of the Constitution are also relevant. After discussing the operation of the indigenous law of inheritance, the international human rights provisions violated by it, as well as the recommendations of the South African Law Commission and legislative proposals on this issue, the writer suggests that legislation should be adopted to ensure equality for women and girls, while retaining the positive aspects of indigenous law and culture. / Constitutional, International and Indigenous Law / LL. M. (Law)