This study examines the ways in which adult male students approach learning English as a second language. A number of recent studies have indicated that many male learners experience considerable difficulty participating in language classes. In particular several studies have found that course failure rates of male language students were higher than those of females. The objectives of the present study, therefore, are to: describe the preferred strategies of a group of male students for approaching language learning; describe the strategies they use when interacting in class discussion; and to examine the relationship between learning strategies and ESL academic achievement. This broad subject has been narrowed down to a specific focus on how male ESL students develop oral and aural skills. The subjects are a small group of students of the Adult Migrant English Service Program, Canberra. Data have been obtained through questionnaires, interviews and observations in classroom settings. The questionnaires and interviews aim to reveal how frequently, and in what situations, certain learning strategies appear important to the male students' participation in language learning. These strategies include those of memory, cognition, compensation, meta-cognition, social communication and emotion. The observations examine patterns in interaction. Both the questionnaire and observations provide the basis for statistical analysis. Literature covering the role of strategies and styles in second language learning, the characteristics of adult learners; and gender differences in the range of strategies used by adult learners has been examined and used as a foundation for the present study. Strategies for listening and speaking are often used without conscious attention given to them. However, given the right learning environment, male students may develop a range of strategies that may assist them in ESL learning. This environment exists both informally, in the community, and in the ESL classroom. It was found that students who used ESL frequently in community life, such as in a workplace setting, had developed a "strategy awareness" and were able to call on a broad range of strategies to help them when interacting with other speakers. Within the classroom, it was observed that unstructured discussions using open-ended themes encouraged male students to use a variety of strategies, such as asking questions, asking for clarification and expanding ideas, to enable them to participate in the communication. The findings of this study suggest that an awareness of and ability to apply appropriate learning strategies have an important place in helping male students participate in selected language learning activities and to develop their ESL skills. An examination of Australian Second Language Proficiency Rating scores and the Certificate in Spoken and Written English III results revealed that students who were successful in these assessment measures, were those who were observed and who reported frequent awareness and utilisation of the above mentioned strategies. Finally, it can be suggested that because not all male students have equal opportunities to use ESL in community life, the English language teacher is in an ideal position to develop students' strategy awareness. For this to occur, the teacher also needs to create a learning environment whereby students are encouraged to select from these strategies and to utilise them in appropriate ways.

Is it possible for technological �spaces� to be created that can provide a community atmosphere � one in which learners are not restrained by pre-determined syllabi and have the ability to direct their learning according to their own interests, pace and goals? If so, it would be notable to discover which kinds of interactions might be possible, or might eventuate, and how the participants in such a learning �space� would organize themselves. Also of interest would be the kinds of power structures that emerged through participant interaction, the direction/interactions undertaken by the participants and the improvements that could be made in order to respect and accommodate the differences between learners in a social online learning space. In order to further study this hypothesised need to investigate these questions, this researcher developed an online, English as a Second/Foreign Language learning environment for advanced adult learners of English. She reviewed the appropriate literature in order to theorise how to commence this research direction and investigated various learning platforms and software tools. The result was the development of a multiplatform environment which consisted of a content management system and a 3D microworld. Tools, exercises and content were developed and/or gathered as starting points for learners and the various software had to be learnt in order to orient others on their use. Finally, the environment was trialed over a four week duration with a group of advanced to native speakers of English (volunteers) and the results have been presented in this thesis for discussion. The trial, entitled the ILE Project, attempted to study the problems involved in the technical development of such spaces, to observe the interactions between the learners in a 3D microworld and uncover issues relating to its implementation. Some issues raised by the project concerned techno-literacy, personality-driven interaction differences and organizational power shifts within the 3D community. This thesis closes with an argument that redefines the notion of the learner autonomy, proposes certain modifications to both the pedagogic and technical structure of the online environment and discusses the issues raised in this research. The latter discussion would require further re-conceptualization of the spaces, stakes and support structures that educators can create/provide in an attempt to improve online language learning.

<p>Work integrated learning was established at Swedish universities about twenty years ago; and today there are some different attitudes about the purpose of integrating theoretical perspectives to practical experiences, during higher education. For example, there are arguments that students tend to become clients or tools in order to gain regional development if the practical perspectives overcome the possibilities of reflection. Education will in this case only serve to facilitate employment after graduation, rather than to facilitate developmental learning. To understand the relationship between reproductive- and developmental learning, this thesis explores the different kinds of strategies student teachers develop, during their teacher training – to gain the skills and knowledge needed to work as a professional teacher. The focus is how the students respond to the various emerging contradictions, while crossing the boundaries – between the university, and the workplace. The activity theory approach conceptualizes boundary-crossing as a phenomenon based on the idea of horizontal development – which requires the ability to find relevant information wherever it may be available. The implication is that change and development occur as a result of collaboration through mutual boundary objects, and via emerging contradictions between two or more interacting activity systems. The overall design resembles a phenomenological case study performed over a period of approximately six months. The population providing the empirical data consisted of five student teachers, in their first year, attending a teacher training program in Sweden. Data collection where gathered through a three-step design, where exploratory narrative interviews were conducted at three different occasions: (i) after their first period of work placement, (ii) before entering their second period of work placement and (iii) immediately after their second period of work placement. The results indicate that the students’ processes of learning include four distinct learning strategies (questioning, challenging, adjusting and imitating), to transform the information given in various situations. These strategies are consequences of the students´ prior experiences when encountering contradictions during their teacher training program.</p> / <p>För omkring 20 år sedan utvecklades arbetsintegrerat lärande som en ny pedagogisk form på svenska högskolor och universitet Det råder dock delade meningar om syftet bakom högskolans ambition att integrera teoretiska perspektiv till individuella praktiska erfarenheter. Exempelvis riskerar studenter att liknas vid klienter, eller verktyg för regional utveckling om fokus på praktiska erfarenheter överordnas möjligheten till reflektion. Utbildningens roll kan i så fall bli att underlätta anställningsbarhet efter examen istället för att leda till ett utvecklingsinriktat lärande. För att förstå relationen mellan anpassnings- och utvecklingsinriktat lärande undersöker denna uppsats vilka strategier lärarstudenter utvecklar, under utbildning på lärarprogrammet, för att uppbära den kunskap som behövs för att kunna arbeta som lärare. Fokus ligger på hur studenterna svarar mot de varierande motsättningar som uppstår vid övergångarna mellan högskolan och arbetsplatsen. Uppsatsen utgår från verksamhetsteoretiska resonemang och speciellt fenomenet ”boundary-crossing” som innebär grunden för horisontell utveckling och innefattar förmågan att finna relevant information där den är tillgänglig. Utgångspunkten är att förändring och utveckling sker som ett resultat av samverkan mot gemensamma mål och på grund av motsättningar mellan två eller flera verksamhetssystem. Det övergripande upplägget av studien kan liknas vid en fenomenologisk fallstudie och utfördes under sex månader. Populationen som ligger till grund för studiens empiriska data består av fem lärarstudenter som studerar sitt första år vid en av Sveriges lärarutbildningar. Data samlades in genom narrativa intervjuer vid tre olika tillfällen: (i) efter studenternas första praktikperiod, (ii) innan studenterna påbörjade sin andra praktikperiod och (iii) direkt efter att studenterna avslutat sin andra praktikperiod. Studiens resultat visar att lärarstudenterna använder fyra olika lärandestrategier (ifrågasättande, utmanande, anpassande och imiterande), för att omvandla den information de möter till kunskap, vid olika tillfällen under lärarutbildningen. Dessa strategier utvecklas som följd av de erfarenheter studenterna har med sig när de möter olika motsättningar under lärarutbildningen.</p>

Work integrated learning was established at Swedish universities about twenty years ago; and today there are some different attitudes about the purpose of integrating theoretical perspectives to practical experiences, during higher education. For example, there are arguments that students tend to become clients or tools in order to gain regional development if the practical perspectives overcome the possibilities of reflection. Education will in this case only serve to facilitate employment after graduation, rather than to facilitate developmental learning. To understand the relationship between reproductive- and developmental learning, this thesis explores the different kinds of strategies student teachers develop, during their teacher training – to gain the skills and knowledge needed to work as a professional teacher. The focus is how the students respond to the various emerging contradictions, while crossing the boundaries – between the university, and the workplace. The activity theory approach conceptualizes boundary-crossing as a phenomenon based on the idea of horizontal development – which requires the ability to find relevant information wherever it may be available. The implication is that change and development occur as a result of collaboration through mutual boundary objects, and via emerging contradictions between two or more interacting activity systems. The overall design resembles a phenomenological case study performed over a period of approximately six months. The population providing the empirical data consisted of five student teachers, in their first year, attending a teacher training program in Sweden. Data collection where gathered through a three-step design, where exploratory narrative interviews were conducted at three different occasions: (i) after their first period of work placement, (ii) before entering their second period of work placement and (iii) immediately after their second period of work placement. The results indicate that the students’ processes of learning include four distinct learning strategies (questioning, challenging, adjusting and imitating), to transform the information given in various situations. These strategies are consequences of the students´ prior experiences when encountering contradictions during their teacher training program. / För omkring 20 år sedan utvecklades arbetsintegrerat lärande som en ny pedagogisk form på svenska högskolor och universitet Det råder dock delade meningar om syftet bakom högskolans ambition att integrera teoretiska perspektiv till individuella praktiska erfarenheter. Exempelvis riskerar studenter att liknas vid klienter, eller verktyg för regional utveckling om fokus på praktiska erfarenheter överordnas möjligheten till reflektion. Utbildningens roll kan i så fall bli att underlätta anställningsbarhet efter examen istället för att leda till ett utvecklingsinriktat lärande. För att förstå relationen mellan anpassnings- och utvecklingsinriktat lärande undersöker denna uppsats vilka strategier lärarstudenter utvecklar, under utbildning på lärarprogrammet, för att uppbära den kunskap som behövs för att kunna arbeta som lärare. Fokus ligger på hur studenterna svarar mot de varierande motsättningar som uppstår vid övergångarna mellan högskolan och arbetsplatsen. Uppsatsen utgår från verksamhetsteoretiska resonemang och speciellt fenomenet ”boundary-crossing” som innebär grunden för horisontell utveckling och innefattar förmågan att finna relevant information där den är tillgänglig. Utgångspunkten är att förändring och utveckling sker som ett resultat av samverkan mot gemensamma mål och på grund av motsättningar mellan två eller flera verksamhetssystem. Det övergripande upplägget av studien kan liknas vid en fenomenologisk fallstudie och utfördes under sex månader. Populationen som ligger till grund för studiens empiriska data består av fem lärarstudenter som studerar sitt första år vid en av Sveriges lärarutbildningar. Data samlades in genom narrativa intervjuer vid tre olika tillfällen: (i) efter studenternas första praktikperiod, (ii) innan studenterna påbörjade sin andra praktikperiod och (iii) direkt efter att studenterna avslutat sin andra praktikperiod. Studiens resultat visar att lärarstudenterna använder fyra olika lärandestrategier (ifrågasättande, utmanande, anpassande och imiterande), för att omvandla den information de möter till kunskap, vid olika tillfällen under lärarutbildningen. Dessa strategier utvecklas som följd av de erfarenheter studenterna har med sig när de möter olika motsättningar under lärarutbildningen.

This research is an empirical multiple-case study that is designed to explore adult individual learners’ vocabulary learning processes, and to examine their use of vocabulary learning strategies. It investigates the following key questions: (1) What vocabulary learning strategies do the individual learners usually use to find the meaning of unknown words? (2) What vocabulary learning strategies do the individual learners usually use to consolidate the words? (3) How do the individual learners apply the vocabulary learning strategies for the purposes mentioned above? (4) What are the differences between the learners’ use of vocabulary learning strategies? By using multiple data collection methods – questionnaires, interviews, and think-aloud protocols – I not only investigate what strategies the individual research participants use to study vocabulary, but also look at how they actually employ the strategies while completing a series of vocabulary activities. Finally, I also compare the patterns in the use of strategies between the participants. After the introduction, Chapter Two begins with the clarification of basic terms: “word,” “word knowledge,” and “strategy.” In Chapter Three, studies in the fields of vocabulary learning strategies are reviewed. Chapter Four deals with mental processes involved in vocabulary learning. Chapter Five focuses on the empirical study. I describe briefly the German language course (GER 101) and the language textbook, Vorsprung (2nd edition, 2002), and illustrate in depth the methodology used for data collection and data analysis. The results of the study are presented in Chapter Six. Chapter Seven summarizes the study results, followed by suggestions for foreign vocabulary instruction and for future research. The study illustrates that participants used a variety of vocabulary learning strategies to learn vocabulary. In total, 49 individual vocabulary learning strategies are identified and classified. Further, the differences between the learners are shown to be not only in what strategies they use but also in how they employ them. Finally, the study shows that well-organized and planned learning strategy training should be provided to language learners in order to make sure that they can use the strategies effectively, and that language instructors and the language textbook should play an active role in strategy training.

This research is an empirical multiple-case study that is designed to explore adult individual learners’ vocabulary learning processes, and to examine their use of vocabulary learning strategies. It investigates the following key questions: (1) What vocabulary learning strategies do the individual learners usually use to find the meaning of unknown words? (2) What vocabulary learning strategies do the individual learners usually use to consolidate the words? (3) How do the individual learners apply the vocabulary learning strategies for the purposes mentioned above? (4) What are the differences between the learners’ use of vocabulary learning strategies? By using multiple data collection methods – questionnaires, interviews, and think-aloud protocols – I not only investigate what strategies the individual research participants use to study vocabulary, but also look at how they actually employ the strategies while completing a series of vocabulary activities. Finally, I also compare the patterns in the use of strategies between the participants. After the introduction, Chapter Two begins with the clarification of basic terms: “word,” “word knowledge,” and “strategy.” In Chapter Three, studies in the fields of vocabulary learning strategies are reviewed. Chapter Four deals with mental processes involved in vocabulary learning. Chapter Five focuses on the empirical study. I describe briefly the German language course (GER 101) and the language textbook, Vorsprung (2nd edition, 2002), and illustrate in depth the methodology used for data collection and data analysis. The results of the study are presented in Chapter Six. Chapter Seven summarizes the study results, followed by suggestions for foreign vocabulary instruction and for future research. The study illustrates that participants used a variety of vocabulary learning strategies to learn vocabulary. In total, 49 individual vocabulary learning strategies are identified and classified. Further, the differences between the learners are shown to be not only in what strategies they use but also in how they employ them. Finally, the study shows that well-organized and planned learning strategy training should be provided to language learners in order to make sure that they can use the strategies effectively, and that language instructors and the language textbook should play an active role in strategy training.

It is a testament to the complexity of learning that one hundred years of research on feedback has not produced universal prescriptions for training. Results are split in two directions; those recommending more feedback during training and those recommending less. Numerous theories that explain and predict certain feedback effects, but none explain the mixed findings in the literature. This has resulted in: a) no singular theory and b) little understanding of other factors that might affect the mechanism of feedback. The following series of studies systematically manipulated the cognitive load of the experimental task and measured learner working memory capacity. The overall question was whether forcing the learner to self-evaluate would result in more or less learning of a rule-based cognitive task and how this effect might be moderated by the working memory capacity of the learner and the load of the task to be learned. It was expected that high working memory capacity learners might learn more when difficulties were introduced for a simple task (via less supportive feedback). Instead, all groups not only learned more when receiving more support, the high working memory capacity learners appeared more able to utilize the additional feedback. Instead of providing their own support when feedback was minimal or lacking, high working memory capacity participants seemed best able to make use of the information provided in supportive feedback. Low working memory capacity participants seemed unable to either provide their own support when feedback was minimal or lacking, but also were not as able to make use of the information provided in more supportive feedback. The contribution of the current series of studies is an explanation of why and how appropriate level of feedback support can change based on the working memory capacity of the learner and demands of the task. Feedback can either impose a load upon the learner to self-evaluate or provide support for acquisition performance. Though learners may benefit from feedback neither too high nor too low, the current results indicate that additional feedback is most useful to those with the attentional resources available to utilize it.

In this study, four aspects of learner autonomy within the context of CALL were investigated so as to find out whether CALL environments contribute to the development of learner autonomy. Two groups of students, in total 48 preparatory school students, at intermediate level in the Department of Foreign Languages at a private university in Ankara were chosen to take part in the study. First&rsquo / the students&rsquo / language learning strategy use was explored. Then, only one group of students was given a five-week language learning strategy training through CALL. During the training, their motivation levels, willingness to take responsibility for learning and involvement in out-of-class studies were scrutinized. In order to reach the aforementioned goals, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected by the help of questionnaires, semi-structured face-to-face interviews, observations, e-learning diaries kept by the strategy training group and a five-week language learning strategy training through CALL. In order to reach the aim of the study, the data were collected in the form of pre-test and post-test for the language learning strategies of the learners from both groups to be analyzed and evaluated. Besides, both groups were observed by the instructors in order to address motivation, taking responsibility for learning and engaging in out-of-class study. However, only the students in one group were given a five-week language learning strategy training through CALL, and they were interviewed before and after the training and they kept e-learning diaries. The findings indicated that the five-week language learning strategy training helped the students in the strategy training group to improve their use of language learning strategies as well as increasing their motivation, encouraging them to take responsibility for their learning and engage in out-of-class activities. However, when compared to the students in the strategy training group, the students who did not get the five-week language learning strategy training through CALL did not show many uses of language learning strategies, high motivation levels, willingness to take responsibility and engage in out-of-class activities. Since the main aim of this study was to foster learner autonomy by the help of CALL, this study attempted to suggest ways to help learners to use language learning strategies, increase their motivation, take responsibility for learning and engage in out-of-class. Keywords: CALL, learner autonomy, learning strategies, motivation, taking responsibility, out-of-class study, language learning

This study aimed to investigate the potentials of two cognitive tools for instructional planning (Instructional Planning Self-reflective Tool, IPSRT, and Constructivist Planning Self-reflective Tool, CPSRT) and microteaching in gaining instructional planning and teaching skills for preservice teachers. The participants were 51 fourth year students in Computer Education and Instructional Technology program. The study is an action research with three main foci. The first focus of this study aimed at investigating contributions and challenges involved in the use of the cognitive tools for instructional planning with tutoring from the instructor. More specifically, to what extent the preservice teachers followed these tools during this process, the effects of these tools on preservice teachers&rsquo / self-efficacy, the perceived instrumentality regarding instructional planning, and the perceived contributions and challenges presented by these tools were focused. Both tools were introduced to the two sections, in different orders within four weeks. The data for this focus were collected by means of questionnaires, interviews and documents (lesson plans). This focus revealed that / expect for writing objectives, the participants could make instructional plans according to the IPSRT. They could also follow the CPSRT to design the instructional goal, required characteristics of learning activities and the assessment. Both tools were found to significantly increase their initial self-efficacy beliefs. They found CPSRT more flexible, while IPSRT easier and more helpful. This focus indicated that IPSRT and CPSRT can be used as supportive tools in preservice teachers&rsquo / gaining instructional planning skills. If both tools were used, it would be better to introduce IPSRT at first and then CPSRT. The second focus of this study was to explore the contributions and challenges of microteaching activities regarding preservice teachers&rsquo / instructional planning and teaching skills. The microteaching activities took eight weeks. Throughout this phase, each student planned a 20-minute microteaching with tutoring from the instructor and performed it in the classroom. The performers were formatively evaluated through a microteaching assessment form by the instructor, the teaching assistants and some preservice teachers. Then the performers made a self-reflection assignment about their microteaching performance, considering those evaluations. In the following semester, 15 participants&rsquo / perceptions about the contributions and challenges posed by microteaching activities for their instructional planning and teaching skills were obtained through interviews. More specifically, their perceptions about the microteaching planning process with tutoring, performing microteaching, formatively assessing peers&rsquo / microteaching performances, being assessed by peers, and doing self-reflection assignment were analyzed. This focus revealed that although preservice teachers perceive microteaching activities as valuable experiences, microteaching would be more beneficial if the pupils were real ones, not their class-mates. The third focus was to investigate the effects of the cognitive tools and microteaching activities on preservice teachers&rsquo / lesson planning and teaching skills in their field teaching. For this aim, 12 participants&rsquo / field teaching lesson plans and their performance assessments were analyzed. It was found that many of them preferred using the Microteaching Planning Guide and they had no difficulty in their lesson planning. As to field teaching performance, the analyses of the assessment forms showed that a majority of them performed successfully. Besides, most of them were observed not to have anxiety during field teaching. This focus showed that these cognitive tools and microteaching activities could improve preservice teachers&rsquo / self-confidence in lesson planning and teaching skills in real class environment. Considering to meeting the need for better qualified teachers, this study promised that applying these cognitive tools and microteaching model in schools of teacher education is likely to contribute to the instructional planning and teaching skills of preservice computer teachers. This study also offers suggestive implications for how to improve teaching methods courses with the two cognitive tools and microteaching, as well.

In the Western view, shyness has long been perceived as an undesirable personality trait that may interfere with one's interpersonal interactions and adversely affect life satisfaction. However, shyness is viewed differently in Chinese cultures. In Chinese society, individuals are encouraged to restrain personal desires in the interest and wellbeing of the greater good. Given the cultural endorsement of internalized self-control, shy children in Chinese culture are favored for their seeming social competence and selfdiscipline; they are well-liked by their peers and teachers, and considered socially fit. Among the variables that influence L2 strategy choice and use, personality type and motivation are two critical predictors, whereas foreign language anxiety and willingness to communicate often influence learners' performance in L2 communication. This study examined the interrelationship among shyness, L2 learning strategy use, L2 learning motivation, foreign language anxiety, and willingness to communicate. Participants were 364 students enrolled in either Freshman English or Sophomore English courses in a private university in Taipei. They were asked to fill out self-report questionnaires about their global shyness, strategy use and motivation regarding their English studies, the degree of foreign language anxiety they experienced in their current English class, and their willingness to communicate in both Chinese and English contexts. Results indicated that non-shy students reported using strategies more often across all strategy types than their shy counterparts, with compensation strategies being used the most often, and social strategies the least often. In addition, results from a series of hierarchical multiple regressions showed that intrinsic motivation to know appears to be the most important predictor among all motivation regulations for all students' use of most of the strategies. Results also indicated that shyness, foreign language anxiety, and willingness to communicate in both Chinese and English were correlated. Students who reported experiencing more foreign language anxiety in their English class showed less willingness to communicate in both Chinese and English. Moreover, shyness and foreign language anxiety had a moderate positive correlation. Implications for research and practice are discussed. / text