This thesis addresses the persisting gendered division of parental leave in Sweden, where despite policies promoting equal sharing, women still take 70 % of the leave. Aiming to analyze what hinders and what enables equal division of parental leave, I conduct in-depth interviews with eight parents who equally share leave and six parents who do not. Thematic analysis is initially used to explore motivations for parental leave division. Subsequently, I use a theoretical framework focused on motherhood, fatherhood, and care ideals aiming to scrutinize how these ideals influence the division of parental leave. The equally sharing respondents constitute a unique group and by comparing their motivations to respondents who do not share equally, the study does not only generate knowledge about what hinders equal sharing of parental leave, but also highlights what enables it. This is important for gender equality in general and a clear political goal for Swedish family politics. The results indicate that the equally sharing group are guided by ideals of shared parenting, gender equality, and active involvement in both work and caregiving, emphasizing early bonding with both parents. In contrast, the non-equally sharing group, while expressing some desire for gender equality, leans towards more traditional motherhood ideals, legitimizing mothers' preferences for extended leave. Both groups share a commitment to involved fatherhood, but fathers in the non-equally sharing group encounter additional constraints tied to financial considerations and tend to perceive paternity leave as optional rather than obligatory.

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This project attempted to understand better the relationship between social support and women's commitment to an abusive relationship for the purpose of informing social support interventions. This study was not an intervention; instead, it sought to examine the processes linking receipt of helpful forms of social support from naturally occurring sources with women's commitment and stay/leave decisions. Specifically, it was hypothesized that relationship satisfaction and quality alternatives would mediate the relationship between received social support types (e.g., nondirective support, positive social exchange, tangible assistance, and directive guidance) and battered women's feelings of commitment. Fifty-one battered women living in domestic violence shelters participated in the present study. Women completed the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2), Inventory of Socially Supportive Behaviors (ISSB), and Investment Model Scale (IMS) along with other measures designed for this study. Results showed that battered women who received more resources and services (i.e., tangible assistance) endorsed lesser commitment to their abusive relationships; however, other dimensions of social support such as showing concern, giving advice, and spending time in recreational activities were unrelated to commitment. Further, neither relationship satisfaction nor quality alternatives mediated the relationship between support and commitment; however, relationship satisfaction and quality alternatives demonstrated expected relationships with women's commitment. Potential design limitations as well as clinical and research implications are discussed. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study is to critically examine family leave policies across universities in the United States to determine whether and to what degree they rely on traditional notions of motherhood and family. Conversations surrounding the lack of equitable and adequate family leave should be continued by researchers, advocates, and policymakers, but the inclusivity of current family leave policies warrants critical attention. The reliance on reproduction to define motherhood excludes individuals who cannot or choose not to give birth. This reliance also attaches mothering behaviors and norms to feminine bodies which works to reify gender inequalities. This project utilizes a mixed methods approach. Using a qualitative content analysis of family leave policies from different universities, I examine if and how they rely on aspects of physical birth, heteronormativity, and gendered language. I compare family leave policies across states that are (and are not) considered LGBTQ+ friendly. Secondly, I used a binary logistic regression analysis to test institutional isomorphism, specifically examining to what extent coercive and mimetic pressures affect family leave policy inclusiveness. I found that most policies are gender neutral and do not rely heavily on reproduction, but the implications of those that are highly gendered and rely on reproduction are enlightening. I found that only 8% of policies included LGBTQ+ specific protections. The regression model revealed that isomorphism is not the greatest predictor of policy inclusiveness, and that universities in less progressive states are more likely to have inclusive policies / Master of Science / The purpose of this research is to examine to what degree university family leave policies rely on traditional gender norms, biological reproduction, and heteronormativity, thus determining how inclusive family leave policies are of adoptive and LGBTQ+ families. Notions of traditional gender norms, biological reproduction, and heteronormativity can potentially exclude adoptive and LGBTQ+ families, as well as gender-nonconforming individuals. I compared universities in both progressive and conservative states to determine if state politics have any effect on family leave policy inclusiveness. I used a content analysis to examine these policies, where I individually coded each policy for gendered language, notions of biological reproduction, and LGBTQ+ protections. I also ran a statistical analysis to determine what variables have an effect on overall policy leave inclusiveness. I found that most policies are gender neutral and do not rely heavily on reproduction, but the implications of those that are highly gendered and rely on reproduction are enlightening. I found that only 8% of policies included LGBTQ+ specific protections. The statistical analysis revealed that state politics (i.e., informal pressures) are not the best indicator of policy inclusiveness, as universities in less progressive states are more likely to have inclusive policies.

The research regarding the effect of policy on teacher absenteeism is scarce and research examining teacher absenteeism from a state perspective is very limited. This mixed methods study analyzed selected school variables for public schools and districts in Virginia contained in the 2011-2012 and 2013-2014 Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC) and in the National Center for Educational Statistics. In addition, a content analysis was performed on leave policies for all 132 school districts in Virginia yielding policy variables for the study. The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship of school and policy characteristics to teacher absences. The analysis for this study involved computing descriptive statistics, correlating continuous variables, and running multiple regressions for each dataset (school and district for each year) to determine the predictors of the dependent variable, chronically absent teachers, defined as the percentage of teachers absent for more than 10 days. Although the school models were significant, neither was a particularly strong predictor of chronically absent teachers, only accounting for 15.2 percent variation (2011-2012 model with R2=.152) and 9.6 percent variation (2013-2014 model with R2=.096) that is predicted by the independent variables. Nevertheless, there were independent policy and school variables that were significant predictors in both school years. The most prominent variables included: total leave, personal leave maximums, income protection provisions (sick leave banks, short-term disability), free and reduced lunch population percentage of a school, pupil/teacher ratio of the school, and the grade level of the school (elementary, middle, and high). / Ed. D. / Teacher absences have an educational impact on student achievement. Research specific to teacher absences is very limited. Using data for public school districts in Virginia, this study aimed to determine the relationship of school and policy characteristics to teacher absences. The study found that increasing the amount of total leave (sick and personal) granted annually and increasing the number of personal leave days a teacher is allowed to take annually, is likely to lead to higher number of teachers absent more than 10 days annually. The study also found schools with higher free and reduced lunch student population and higher pupil/teacher ratios are more likely to have a higher number of teachers absent more than 10 days. Finally the study found that there is a relationship of the grade level of the schools with middle schools having a higher percentage of teachers absent more than 10 days.

This dissertation provides program evaluation and policy analysis evidence from USA and Iran. The first chapter studies the impact of paid leave legislation on women employment. We employ California’s first-in-the-nation Paid Family Leave program to draw inference using difference-in-differences and triple differences methods. The change in the employment outcomes for women before and after this program is compared to the change in similar outcomes for a set of control groups. We find that women’s employment increased in the intensive margin but not extensive margin. We also find that wages increased for married prime-age and decreased for highly educated young women. The second chapter provides evidence on the impact of a nation-wide unconditional cash transfer program in Iran on labor supply. As compensation for the removal of bread and energy subsidies in 2011, the government of Iran started monthly deposits of cash into individual family accounts amounting to 29% of the median household income. A popular outcry against the subsidy reform program has focused on the negative labor supply effects of the cash transfers on the poor. We use panel data to study the impact of these transfers on the labor supply of poor households and individuals during the first two years of the program, before inflation reduced their value. We use the exogenous variation in the value of the cash transfers relative to household income to estimate the impact of the transfers on labor supply of individuals using fixed effects method. We also use a difference-in-differences methodology using the variation in the time households first started receiving transfers. Although everyone was eligible to receive cash transfers starting January 2011, about 20 percent of the households who for one reason or another did not submit their application in time, started receiving it three months later. Neither set of results support the hypothesis that cash transfers reduced labor supply as measured by hours of work or probability of employment. The third chapter analyses what happens to the welfare of households and the budget of the government if it implements further price reforms in Iran. Five years into the reform, energy prices in Iran were still well below international levels. The impacts of a gradualist approach to price increase versus a one-off approach are simulated in this chapter. Under the gradualist approach government savings (reduction in foregone earnings) from selling subsidized items will increase by 20.2 trillion Rials or 0.18 percent of GDP in 2014. Half of these savings is needed as transfers to households to keep the poverty rate constant by paying each person 17,059 Rials per month. A one-off price increase would have a large effect on poverty and would require transfers equivalent to 203,775 Rials per person per month. Government savings after transfers would equal 96.4 trillion Rials or 0.87 percent of GDP. / Ph. D. / This dissertation evaluates what happened to employment after the implementation of two programs; California Family Paid Leave program and Cash transfer program in Iran. It also predicts what would happen to the well-being of households if prices of energy carriers increase in Iran. The first chapter studies the impact of paid leave legislation in California on women employment. The change in the employment outcomes like hours of work per week and wages for California’s women before and after this program is compared to the change in similar outcomes for other states. We find that women’s employment increased after this program. We also find that wages increased for married prime-age and decreased for highly educated young women. The second chapter provides evidence on the impact of a nation-wide cash transfer program in Iran on employment outcomes. As compensation for the removal of bread and energy subsidies in 2011, the government of Iran started a sizable monthly deposit of cash into individual family accounts. A popular outcry against the subsidy reform program has focused on the lower incentive to work especially on the poor. Neither set of results support the hypothesis that cash transfers reduced labor supply as measured by hours of work or probability of employment. The third chapter analyses what happens to the welfare of households and the budget of the government if it implements further price reforms in Iran. Five years into the reform, energy prices in Iran were still well below international levels. The impacts of two approaches to price increase are simulated in this chapter. In the gradualist approach, prices increased 10% each year. In this approach government savings will increase by 20.2 trillion Rials in 2014. Half of these savings is needed as transfers to households to keep the poverty rate constant. A one-off price increase would have a large effect on poverty and would require transfers equivalent to 203,775 Rials per person per month. Government savings after transfers would equal 96.4 trillion Rials.

Background. Long-term sick leave is one of the main risk factors for permanent exit out of the labour market. The longer the duration of sickness absence, the less likely sick leave conclusion. Objectives and Methods. The aims were to analyse possible determinants of sick leave conclusion and their relative impacts, to analyse the properties of two models for the assessment of sick leave conclusion, to study the impact of a multidisciplinary vocational intervention for sick leave conclusion in a high-risk group for long-term sick leave compared to a matched-control group, and to compare the patients’ own assessment on chance to sick leave conclusion within 6 months with the assessment of a team of rehabilitation professionals. A prospective cohort study of 943 patients aged 18 to 63 years, sickness certified at a Primary Health Care Centre in Sweden during 8 months in 2004, and follow-up for three years. Results. Significant determinants increasing time to sick leave conclusion were number of sick leave days the year before baseline, age and a psychiatric diagnosis (F in ICD-10). Concordance between actual sick leave conclusion and that predicted by a computer-based model was 73-76% during the first 28-180 days in a manual model, and approximately 10% units higher in a computer based model. Three nomograms provided detailed information on the probability on sick leave conclusion. Before intervention started, the rehabilitation group had a 73% higher sick leave conclusion rate than the control group but during the rehabilitation programme period, a 51% lower conclusion rate, and after there were no significant differences between the groups. The patients’ and the rehabilitation teams’ assessment scores were highly correlated (r=0.49).   Conclusions. Previous sick leave was the most influential variable associated with sick leave conclusion. A computer- based assessment model gave more detailed information on sick leave conclusion than a manual model. A multidisciplinary intervention declined sick leave in a high-risk group for long-term sick leave but after intervention there was no difference between groups. Patients’ own view on sick leave conclusion was highly correlated to the assessment of professionals’.

Active fatherhood as a part of family policy in EU Abstract The main objective of this thesis is to explore the conditions that determine the active involvement of men in the care of children in European Union member states and to analyze the impact of active fatherhood on the economic activity of women and fertility. A part of this study is a typology of family leaves with regard to the possibilities of fulfilling nature of active fatherhood, analysis of legislative conditions connected to paternity and parental leave as well as analysis of the Eurobarometer 59.1 survey dealing with the attitudes of men to use parental leave and the circumstances of these attitudes. The relationships between the main factors that influence the decision making of men about their participation in the care of the youngest children are analyzed and there is also tested the effect of this decision. In conclusion, the study outlines the development of conditions of childcare by men and summarizes proposals of legislative changes in conjunction of the studied issue in the Czech Republic.

This thesis is focused on the situation of women - mothers in the Czech labor market as a vulnerable population groups. The work comprehensively analyzes the current system of support for women on maternity leave and subsequent return to the labor market. The theoretical part provides basic concepts and institutions associated with the harmonization of work and family life of women. The analytical part is focused on the causes of insecure women, which are captured from different angles: women, employers, and experts such as sociologists and psychologists. The analysis also provides a comparison of the CR family policy with selected European countries. To better illustrate, the work included a survey that was conducted in the South Region by the questionnaire method. In conclusion this thesis, there are summarizes most important findings detected during processing of the topic.

The purpose of this paper is to create an understanding of the negotiation process behind the decision of who will stay at home with a sick child and to develop the knowledge of the mechanisms considered to affect the negotiation process, in particular, the mechanisms likely to contribute to an uneven use of care leave. In the study six interviews were conducted with three sets of parents. These interviews were then analysed with Janet Finch’s (1989) definition of negotiation of family responsibilities. The study finds that the negotiation on care leave is a result of the negotiation of the shared view of reality. This image is in turn influenced by a number of institutional aspects such as job design, relative resources, and the couple's ideological points. Previous studies that found that relative resources, converted to salary, affects the distribution greatest. Instead the results of this study points out that the nature of work is most important for how parents divide their care leave. If one parent have work that easier can be pushed forward or to be away from, the latter tend to be the one who stays at home. This arrangement, however, is affected by a number of other factors. For example, the ideas of a fair distribution of care leave counteract this tendency.