The overall goal of this research was to investigate the effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the physicochemical properties of chickpea flour and its subsequent performance as a binder in a model low-fat pork bologna product. This work was divided into three studies. In the first study, the effect of seed tempering moisture (untempered (7% moisture) or tempered to 15 or 22% moisture) and surface micronization temperature (115, 130, 150 or 165oC) and on the physical, chemical and functional properties of chickpea flour were investigated. Chickpea flour became darker as seed moisture or micronization temperature increased. Increasing the micronization temperature at 22% seed moisture increased starch gelatinization from 8.2 to 34.0%. The lipoxygenase activity of chickpea flour also was reduced by micronization of seed. Lipoxygenase activity in flour from non-micronized seed and flour from seed micronized at 115oC without tempering was determined to be 1.98×105 and 1.12×105 units/g of protein, respectively, with no activity found in any other treatments. There was an increase in the water holding (WHC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flour when chickpea seed was tempered to 22% moisture before micronization. Flour from untempered seed and from seed tempered to 15% moisture exhibited small increases in WHC as micronization temperature increased. Micronization had no effect on the OAC of untempered flours, whereas OAC decreased in flour from seed tempered to 15% moisture at higher micronization temperatures. Rapid visco-analysis (RVA) revealed that peak viscosity and final viscosity of all flours from tempered seed decreased with increasing micronization temperature, whereas the trend for both peak viscosity and final viscosity was in the opposite direction with untempered seed. The effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the performance of chickpea flour as a binder in a low-fat, comminuted meat product (i.e., low-fat bologna) was investigated in study 2. Both the textural and sensory properties (trained sensory panel, n=12) of the bologna (10% fat) were explored. In study 3, a consumer panel was performed with 101 untrained participants evaluating selected formulations in order to better understand consumer purchasing behaviour as it relates to comminuted meat products containing a pulse-based binder. Bologna containing flour from micronized chickpea was more yellow in colour (CIE system, trained panel and consumer panel evaluation) compared to those with added wheat flour or no binder. There was no effect of tempering or micronization conditions on cook loss or expressible moisture of bologna containing chickpea flour, whereas bologna produced with wheat flour had the greatest WHC among all bologna treatments. Texture profile analysis (TPA) showed that the addition of chickpea flour from seed tempered to 15% or 22% seed moisture and micronized to 115, 130 or 150oC or flour from untempered seed micronized to 130 or 150oC led to an increase in hardness to a level similar to that of bologna containing wheat flour; sensory evaluation by the trained panel did not produce a similar result. A difference in flavour intensity was not found among all bolognas containing chickpea flour during sensory evaluation. Bologna produced with chickpea flour from seed micronized to 150oC and from seed tempered to 22% moisture and micronized to 115oC was comparable to bologna containing wheat flour with respect to overall texture, overall juiciness and flavour acceptability. These results demonstrated that selection of appropriate seed tempering conditions and micronization temperatures is important with respect to the utilization of chickpea flour as a binder in low-fat bologna.

Studies have shown that including perennial forages in cropping rotations can increase soil carbon (C) and lower nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions when compared to continuous annual cropping. Research is needed to evaluate the inclusion of a perennial forage in an annual crop rotation on net carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2O fluxes, natural and agronomic drivers of seasonal greenhouse gases (GHGs), and the possibility of using forages as a C sequestration-CO2 mitigation tool. A long-term field experiment site to determine GHG budgets for Red River Valley cropping systems in Manitoba, Canada was used. The site consisted of four plots with the same annual rotation management history. A perennial legume, alfalfa, was grown in 2008 and 2009 on two plots and spring wheat and industrial oilseed-rapeseed grown on the other two plots in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Nitrous oxide and CO2 fluxes were measured continuously using the flux gradient micrometeorological method. For the net study period, the perennial phase sequestered twice the atmospheric CO2 (2070 kg C ha-1) compared to the annual crops. The annual rotation emitted 3.5 times more N2O than the perennial legume phase. When accounting for harvest C removals and considering GHGs in CO2-equivalent (eq.), the perennial legume phase was a net sink of 5440 kg CO2-eq. ha-1 and the annual rotation was a net source of 4500 kg CO2-eq. ha-1 for the two year study period. Information gathered will help bridge missing data gaps in national emission trends and enhance development of Canadian GHG mitigation models.

Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a tolerância ao sombreamento de cinco variedades de Stylosanthes guianensis, em duas épocas de semeadura. Utilizou-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições e em três e quatro níveis de sombreamento. Aos 60 dias após o início de cada experimento foram avaliadas as características: altura de planta, número de ramos, de folhas e de nódulos, área foliar, teores de clorofila a e b, teor total de clorofila, razão entre os teores de clorofilas a/b, comprimento de raiz, massa seca de ramos, de folhas e de raiz. Nas duas épocas de avaliação, a variedade vulgaris cv. Pucallpa apresentou maiores valores para as características estudadas, sendo o melhor desempenho das variedades em 30% de sombreamento na primeira avaliação e em 50% na segunda. Os resultados obtidos indicaram que há variabilidade de resposta ao sombreamento entre as variedades de Stylosanthes guianensis. / Abstract: The objective of this work was to evaluate the tolerance to the shading of five varieties of Stylosanthes guianensis, at two times of sowing. Treatments were set in complete randomized design with four repetitions, and three and four levels of shading. To the 60 days after the beginning of each experiment had been measured the traits: height of plant, number of branches, of leaves and nodules; leaf area; content of chlorophyll a and the b, total content of chlorophyll, reason enters contents of chlorophyll a/b, root length; dry mass of branches, of leaves and root. At the two times of evaluation, the variety vulgaris cv. Pucallpa had presented raised values for the studied traits, being the best performance of the varieties in 30% of shading in the first evaluation and 50% in second. The gotten results had indicated that it has variability of reply to the shading between the varieties of Stylosanthes guianensis. / Orientador: Maria Lidia Stipp Paterniani / Coorientador: Teresinha de Jesus Deléo Rodrigues / Banca: Ana Regina Pimentel de Almeida / Banca: Danísio Prado Munari / Mestre

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Major Professor Not Listed / Different dry bean crop varieties with different colors are produced in Malawi. Yet, little is known about the drivers of consumer preferences for the different dry bean varieties grown based on color. Literature shows that consumers link bean color to taste, cooking time, gravy quality and other desirable characteristics. The main objective of this research was to assess factors that determine consumption of different types of dry beans in Malawi based on color to determine preferences for different consumer segments and hence the potential value of these preferences communicated across the dry bean supply chain, to enhance the probability of success for breeders’ efforts and the bean value chain’s initiatives. The research used survey data that was collected by the Bean Value Chain Research Network in Lilongwe District, Malawi. The sample size of the dataset was 687 households from three different economic strata. The research focused on four dry bean colors: Red, Red Mottled, White and Cream Mottled bean. These were found to be the most prominent colors by sales and stated preference in Malawi. Two econometric approaches were used in the data analysis. A bivariate analysis using Pearson’s chi-square was used to test the significance of the association between bean consumption (dependent variable) and household as well as product characteristics explanatory variables. A logit model was run on each of the four color types to assess the extent to which the explanatory variables influence consumer preferences for alternative colors of dry bean products. Results showed that 40.8% of the respondents consumed red beans, 12.6% consumed red mottled, 14.6% consumed White and 32% consumed Cream mottled beans. In terms of demographic characteristics, respondents’ marital and employment status as well as household size were found to have no significant influence the consumption of all the four colors. Being educated decreased probability of consuming white and cream mottled beans. Household characteristics were also found to influence preferences for color. For example, households in low and middle-income households were shown to have a lower likelihood of consuming white beans. The characteristics of the beans were also important in influencing preferences. For example, medium grain size beans influenced preference for red beans while fast cooking beans negatively affected the consumption of mottled red beans. The results provide insights for bean breeders in their attempts to contribute to increased producer incomes through a careful response to consumer preferences and not just producer demands for agronomic traits.

A incidência de altas concentrações de selênio (Se) no solo é relatada em várias partes do mundo. Em regiões do estado de São Paulo se observou deficiência em gramíneas, provavelmente associadas ao solo, que em alguns países é corrigido através de fertilização. O Se é essencial aos animais e sua deficiência implica na ocorrência de doenças e nas plantas superiores sua essencialidade também foi constatada. É relevante a falta de informações sobre o assunto a ser estudado, principalmente em solos tropicais. O objetivo da pesquisa foi à obtenção de informações sobre Se no sistema solo x planta. O experimento foi conduzido na FZEA/USP, e constou de uma fase de levantamento de dados sobre os teores de Se em diferentes solos brasileiros e para o teor foliar de Brachiaria decumbens neles desenvolvidas. A segunda fase consistiu na avaliação da aplicação de doses Selenato de sódio em solos considerados com teores deficientes de Se com o cultivo da gramínea Brachiaria brizantha [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf] cv. Marandu e da leguminosa Stylosanthes capitata cv. Campo Grande avaliando os reflexos do micronutriente na nutrição mineral da planta, o que tem implicação direta na nutrição animal. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, em fatorial 3x2x3, sendo os fatores: 1º Fator: tipos de solo (Argissolo Amarelo, Latossolo Vermelho e Nitossolo Vermelho eutroférrico); 2º Fator: plantas forrageiras (Brachiaria brizantha e Stylosanthes capitata) e o 3º Fator: doses de selênio (0, 10 e 20 g.ha-1), com 4 repetições e realização de dois cortes (30 e 80 dias após a uniformização) e os dados foram analisados pelo proc mixed do SAS (2004). Na primeira fase verificou-se que os solos avaliados apresentaram baixos teores de Se e consequentemente, a gramínea desenvolvida neles apresentaram teores considerados deficientes, confirmando a relação do Se no solo e na planta que, pode ser variável de solo para solo. Os teores no solo apresentaram correlação negativa com o teor de areia. A leguminosa apresentou maior capacidade de absorção uma vez que, as doses aplicadas nos solos não foram satisfatórias para que a gramínea atingisse teores foliares necessários para suprir as exigências do animal. No caso da leguminosa a dose de 10 g.ha-1 já foi suficiente para que a planta atingisse o teor requerido, porém o aumento dos teores de Se na parte vegetal foram acompanhados por uma significativa redução nos teores de proteína. As doses não modificaram a produção de massa seca, mas alteraram a composição química das plantas com interferência nos teores de Ca na gramínea e de Ca, S, Fe e Mn na leguminosa. A fertilização do solo com doses de até 20 g.ha-1 de Se em pastagens consorciadas com leguminosas pode favorecer o aumento do consumo de Se pelos animais, porém em um curto espaço de tempo. Em pastagens solteiras, somente com Brachiaria brizantha essas doses foram baixas assegurando a necessidade de mais estudos para que seja possível a recomendação de doses eficientes sem correr riscos de intoxicação do animal, ou mesmo da planta. / High Selenium (Se) concentrations in soil are reported in some places around the world. Deficiencies in grasses were observed in São Paulo´s state areas, probably associated with soil´s quantity of Selenium. Some countries correct this deficiency through of fertilization. Se is essential to animals and its deficiency causes diseases. Se essentiality in plants was evidenced. There is few scientific information about this subject, mainly in tropical soils. Research object was to get information about Se in soil x plant system. The research was realized in FZEA/USP and it had a part of datacollecting of Se quantities in Brazilian soils, and also Se quantities in plant (Brachiaria decumbens) developed in these soils. The second part involved different levels´ application of Sodium selenate in soils with cultures of one grassy Brachiaria brizantha [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf] cv. Marandu and of one legume Stylosanthes capitata cv. Campo Grande. These soils were deficient in Se quantities. It was evaluated the consequences of the Selenium in plants mineral nutrition because its implication in animals nutrition. Experimental design was randomized blocks with factorial 3x2x3: 1º Factor: soils kinds (typic hapludalf, Oxisol, Red Dusky Podzol); 2º Factor: forages (Brachiaria brizantha e Stylosanthes capitata) and 3º Factor: Selenium levels (0, 10 and 20 g.ha-1). It was 4 repetitions and two cuts (30 and 80 days later uniformization). Datum were analyzed in proc mixed of the SAS (2004). The first part of research conclused that the soils had Se low quantities and consequently, the grassy had deficient quantities too. It confirmed the Ses relation soil-plant can be variable of soil to soil. Ses quantities in Soil had presented high negative correlation with sand quantities. Legume had greater capacity to Ses absorption. Levels of Ses applications in soil weren`t satisfactory to grassy, because Ses quantities in plant werent sufficient to supply animal requirement. Legume got enough plant quantity with 10 g.ha-1. However, the increase in plant quantity to legume was followed of significant reduction in protein quantities. Ses levels didn`t modified dry matter production. Ses levels modified plants chemical composition with interference in Ca quantities to grassy and Ca, S, Fe and Mn to legume. Ses animal consumption would be beneficed in pasture with legume in consort with application until 20 g.ha-1 in soil fertilization, however during short period. The levels evaluated wont be sufficient to pastures with only Brachiaria brizantha.This fact assured the necessity of more research to determinate the efficient level without risks of animal intoxication or plant intoxication.

A symbiotic association between leguminous roots and soil fixing nitrogen bacteria is required for legume nodule formation. The primary function of nodules is the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere into an accessible form for plants. In this study, nodules of plants of the soybean cultivar Prima 2000 were characterized and their number and weight were determined during nodule development. Their nitrogen-fixing activity during nodule development was determined by color evaluation. A pink nodule color showed active leghemoglobin required for nitrogen fixation and a green nodule color nonfunctional leghemoglobin. Strong appearance of nonfunctional leghemoglobin in the later stages of nodule development during senescence was accompanied by an increase in protease activity within crown nodules demonstrated by gelatine-containing SDS PAGE. Cysteine protease activity was identified as a major protease activity during nodule senescence when the cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 was used to block total protease activity. Products, which may indicate the expression of cysteine protease inhibitors during nodule development, were detected with the reverse zymogram technique and Western blotting. However, these bands have not been characterized so far in more detail. Putative transgenic plants were produced using the Agrobacterium transformation technique to allow determining the activity of native and mutated papaya cysteine protease inhibitor coding sequences. These sequences will ultimately be used for soybean transformation to reduce cysteine protease activity in nodules. However, the presence of coding sequence in the genome of these putative transgenic plants could not be confirmed by gene amplification and protease activity testing. Overall, this study has contributed to establish parameters to measure nodule growth and performance during development. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Science / unrestricted

This study addressed the effects of salinity and pot size on the interaction between leguminous plant hosts and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in four pine rockland soils using a shade house trap-plant experiment. Little is known about the belowground diversity of pine rocklands and the interactions between aboveground and belowground biota – an increased understanding of these interactions could lead to improved land management decisions, conservation and restoration efforts. Following twelve weeks of growth, plants were measured for root and shoot dry biomass and percent colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Overall, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi had positive fitness effects on the four legume species (Cajanus cajan, Chamaecrista fasciculata, Tephrosia angustissima and Abrus precatorius), improving their growth rate, shoot and root biomass; pot size influenced plant-fungal interactions; and percent colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was influenced by soil type as well as salinity.

Thesis(Ph.D.(Botany)) --University of Limpopo,2019 / Genetic transformation offers great opportunities for rapidly introducing, selecting or inducing desired characteristics in various leguminous plants for breeding purposes. But, this technique remains aloof for soybean improvement due to challenges such as genotype specificity, inefficient regeneration protocols and the rapid loss of viability in seeds required to develop explants. However, the rate of seed deterioration and its influence on in-vitro plant genetic transformation differs according to the age, storage duration and moisture content of the seeds used. The moisture status of the seeds is usually high during harvesting and deterioration (loss of viability) starts to occur when seeds are stored under ambient conditions for long periods. This seed deterioration also results in a phenomenon called “recalcitrance”, which is predominantly realised in soybean. In the present study, selected soybean genotypes were analysed for: (i) the efficiency of germination using seeds stored for 0, 3, 6 and 9-months under ambient conditions (ii) the effect of seed storage on in-vitro multiple shoot induction, (iii) the competency of the selected soybean genotypes on callus induction and Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation and (iv) the evaluation of protein profiles of the genotypes following co-cultivation of cotyledonary node explants with A. tumefaciens. The results obtained in this study showed that, seed stored for more than 3-months had reduced rates of germination, seedling development and in-vitro shoot multiplication. In particular, seed stored for 9-months showed a significant drop in seed germination, and less than 50% overall seed germination (Dundee-42%, LS678- 49%, TGx140-2F-44% and TGx1835-10E-48%) except for LS677 and Peking with 52 and 55%, respectively. The efficiency of multiple shoot induction also decreased with the prolonged seed storage, with all genotypes recording overall decline from about 96% to 40% regeneration efficiency over this period. The mean number of induced shoots decreased from more than 10.5 to 4.2 shoots per explant, for each genotype. The results obtained clearly indicated that efficient in-vitro shoot induction depended largely on seed storage duration, viability and significantly differed according to genotype. Following the evaluation for callus induction and Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation frequencies, the results indicated that the responses were genotype specific. This trend was consecutively observed in all soybean cultivars used (LS677, LS678, Dundee, Peking, TGx1740-2F and TGx1835-10E). Furthermore, the responses of the genotypes were also dependent on the culture media composition,especially, plant growth regulators and antibiotics. Amongst the cultivars used, Peking demonstrated the highest callus induction capacity (more than 70%) on MS-A and the mean number of shoots induced (1.65) using cotyledonary explants co-cultivated with Agrobacterium. This was followed by LS677 (1.42 shoots), LS678 (1.40 shoots), Dundee (1.30 shoots), TGx1835-10E (0.80 shoots) and TGx1740-2F (0.75 shoots), respectively. These genotypes also demonstrated low yields of proteins, extracted using a TCA buffer, and separated by means of two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The one-dimensional and two-dimensional profiles of proteins extracted from explants infected with Agrobacterium differed significantly to those expressed without co-cultivation of cotyledonary nodes with bacteria. These observations suggested that, the infection and co-cultivation of explants with Agrobacterium may have caused the expression of new proteins. Newly expressed proteins could also be found to either promote or inhibit transgene integration and expression on the cotyledonary node explants transformed with Agrobacterium tumefaciens for trait improvement. This study has clearly demonstrated that soybean production is confronted with a myriad of stress factors, including seed storage and quality problems due to unfavourable storage duration and weather conditions, amongst others. Thus, soybean seeds used for germination, callus induction, multiple shoot induction and genetic improvement should be harvested at R8 stage after reaching physiological maturity (with 20-35% seed moisture content) to avoid any mechanical damage, shattering or loss of seed viability. / National Research Foundation

Cattle are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. In particular, the cow-calf phase of production accounts for approximately 80 percent of the total beef production system greenhouse gas emissions. Tannins are chemical compounds found in certain forages and they have the potential to help reduce these negative environmental impacts. Thus, given that the cow-calf phase often relies on feeding hay, feeding tannin-containing hays may represent a significant mitigation practice. With my MS program, I sought to explore whether tannin-containing hays fed to mother cows and heifers influence methane and nitrogen emissions relative to feeding traditional legume and grass hays . I found that “non-traditional” hays such as cicer milkvetch and tannin-containing hays such as sainfoin, birdsfoot trefoil and small burnet can help mitigate greenhouse gas and nitrogen emissions produced from heifers and mature cows. Therefore, these hays could be used to feed cattle during the fall and winter to help create a more environmentally friendly cow-calf phase of beef production.

Tall fescue is the one of most common grasses in irrigated pastures throughout the Intermountain West. Two limitations of tall fescue are a decrease in productivity during hot summer months and the need for supplemental nitrogen (N). The objective of this research was to compare tall fescue-alfalfa (TF+ALF), tall fescue-birdsfoot trefoil (TF+BFT), tall fescue-nitrogen fertilizer (TF+N), and tall fescue without nitrogen fertilizer (TF-N) on forage yield, nutritional quality, and livestock performance. Research plots were established at the Utah State University Pasture Research Facility in Lewiston, UT in 2010 and grazed in 2012 and 2013. Treatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications and divided into four paddocks per replication. Three Angus crossbred steers with an average starting weight of 380 kg were placed on each treatment and rotated to a new paddock every 7 days. A put-and-take method was used throughout the growing season such that each paddock received 80% utilization. Four forage samples were collected from each paddock just prior to grazing using a 0.5 m2 quadrat for determination of dry matter (DM) and nutrient content. ADF, NDF, IVTD, and TDN were used to estimate nutrient content and steers were weighed every 28 days to determine livestock performance. Forage yield was highest (P<0.05) in TF+N (5164 kg ha-1), followed by the TF+BFT (4721 kg ha-1) and TF+ALF (4463 kg ha-1) treatments, whereas, the TF-N treatment had the lowest yield (2920 kg ha-1). In this study, TF+BFT (593 g kg-1) and TF+ALF (593 g kg-1) had a better (P≤ 0.05) season-long average TDN value than TF+N (558 g kg-1), which in turn was higher (P≤ 0.05) than TF-N (550 g kg-1). Steer average daily gains (ADG) were different (P<0.05) in every treatment with TF+BFT (0.73 kg d-1) being the highest, followed by TF+ALF (0.67 kg d-1), then TF+N (0.61 kg d-1), and similar to forage yield, TF-N had the lowest ADG (0.40 kg d-1). Tall fescue greatly benefits from added N whether via fertilizer or N transfer by legumes and this study showed that BFT and ALF mixed with TF increases plant and animal performance while reducing fertilizer costs and helps maintain a more environmentally sustainable pasture.