L’analyse de cycle de vie (ACV), telle qu’elle est pratiquée aujourd’hui, peut conduire à des résultats biaisés. L’utilisation de cet outil s’avère particulièrement sensible dans des cadres réglementaires. En effet, au lieu d’inciter les entreprises à réduire leurs impacts sur l’environnement, les certifications obtenues à partir des ACV risquent de produire un effet contraire : comme elles tendent à récompenser des moyennes industrielles plutôt que les résultats propres aux entreprises, elles peuvent détruire toute incitation pour ces dernières à agir correctement sur le plan environnemental. Dans cette thèse nous proposons des éléments de réflexion en matière de gestion pouvant être utiles à l’évolution de l’ACV à partir d’une étude de cas sur l’évaluation de la soutenabilité d’une filière biodiesel issu d’huile de palme brésilienne dans le cadre de la Directive EnR. Trois principaux résultats émergent de ce travail doctoral. Le premier se rapporte à la réflexion que nous menons sur l’évaluation de la durabilité imposée par la Directive EnR. Le deuxième renvoie aux réponses concrètes sur l’évaluation de la filière biodiesel évaluée à l’égard de la Directive, notamment par rapport aux émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Le troisième résultat concerne l’identification des besoins latents en matière d’évaluation de qualité des données d’ACV / Life cycle analysis (LCA), as it is currently applied, can lead to biased results. The use of LCA information is particularly sensitive when taken in the context of government regulatory frameworks. Indeed, instead of encouraging companies to reduce their impact on the environment, certifications obtained through LCA studies may produce the opposite effect: as they tend to reward industry averages rather than enterprise-specific results they can destroy all incentive for companies to reduce their environmental impacts. In this thesis we propose an in-depth analysis of management aspects in LCA and discuss how they could contribute to produce good quality LCA studies. For this, a case study was conducted on the sustainability evaluation of a biodiesel produced from Brazilian palm oil within the framework of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED). Three main findings emerge from this doctoral work. The first refers to the analysis of the sustainability evaluation required by RED with a particular emphasis on its application to the Brazilian context of palm oil production. The second refers to the concrete answers produced from the biodiesel evaluated, particularly with respect to greenhouse gas emissions. The third result concerns the identification of latent needs in terms of LCA data quality assessment

Cette thèse a pour objectif de développer une méthodologie d’évaluation environnementale de la mobilité quotidienne des personnes en prenant en compte ses dimensions sociales et spatiales mais également technologiques. La circulation des personnes, comme celle des marchandises, s’est énormément développée ces dernières décennies. L’automobile s’est imposée comme le mode de transport dominant, alimentant de nombreuses controverses du fait de son impact sur l’environnement ainsi que sur l’aménagement du territoire, les modes de vie, l’économie. L’évaluation environnementale de la mobilité quotidienne de personnes nécessite donc une approche intégrée représentant le système de transport, mais aussi le système urbain dans lequel elle s’insère. Pour ce faire, cette thèse propose une méthodologie reposant sur deux outils développés dans deux champs disciplinaires distincts, l’aménagement du territoire et les sciences de l’environnement, avec la modélisation des interactions transport-urbanisme et l’Analyse du Cycle de Vie. Couplés, ces outils permettent de représenter l’ensemble des processus technologiques impliqués pour la mobilité quotidienne ainsi que les différentes interactions entre les acteurs et les territoires. Tout au long de cette thèse, le cadre d’évaluation adopté est stratégique, s’intéressant aux mobilités réalisées au sein d’un territoire étendu à travers des indicateurs environnementaux globaux et locaux ainsi qu’aux différentes alternatives envisageables à moyen et long termes. La deuxième partie de la thèse met en œuvre la méthode SIMBAD-ACV, reposant sur le couplage entre un modèle LUTI existant, SIMBAD, et une ACV pour évaluer les impacts environnementaux de la mobilité quotidienne des habitants de l’aire urbaine de Lyon. Cette application a pour but d’illustrer la capacité d’analyse de la méthodologie à travers, d’une part, une approche multicritère et désagrégée au niveau des ménages et des territoires et, d’autre part, en estimant les impacts de scénarios contrastés représentant des alternatives variées. Finalement, grâce à la méthode SIMBAD-ACV, les effets sur les impacts environnementaux associés à la mobilité des paramètres technologiques, de la forme urbaine et des caractéristiques socio-économiques ont pu être comparés et discutés. / By considering social, spatial and technological dimensions of people’s daily mobility, this thesis aims to develop an original environmental assessment method. In the recent years, passenger travel, as well as freight transportation, have grown significantly. Car is now the predominant mode of passenger transport and its impacts on environment, land-use planning, lifestyle and economy are well documented and at the centre of heated academic and political debates. The environmental assessment of peoples’ daily mobility requires an integrated approach to account for the transport system, but also the urban system in which it operates. In order to achieve this, this thesis introduces a method coupling two tools developed in two distinct scientific fields - land-use planning and environmental sciences: on the one hand, Land-Use and Transport Interaction models (LUTI) and, on the other hand, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methods. Together, these tools can account for both technological processes involved in daily mobility, as well as interactions among stakeholders and territories. Throughout this thesis, the chosen evaluation framework is a strategic one, meaning that mobility is assessed through global and local environmental indicators on a large territory for medium and long-term alternatives. We describe the global context and the general approach in the first section of the thesis. The second part describes the SIMBAD-LCA method, which involves the integration of the LUTI model SIMBAD with a LCA method, in order to assess environmental impacts of the daily mobility of inhabitants in the Lyon urban area. The third part aims to illustrate the evaluation capability of the method in two steps. First, through a multicriteria assessment executed on disaggregated objects such as households and territories. Then, contrasted scenarios are built to assess broad and diversified alternatives. Finally, using the SIMBAD-LCA method, effects of technological, urban form and socio-economic parameters on environmental impacts associated with daily mobility are compared and discussed.

O principal instrumento de avaliação dos impactos ambientais do ciclo de vida de produtos é a Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Uma de suas fases, a Avaliação de Impacto do Ciclo de Vida (AICV) refere-se ao processo quantitativo e/ou qualitativo aplicado na caracterização e avaliação dos impactos associados ao inventário do ciclo de vida. Dentre os impactos ambientais avaliados, estão aqueles relacionados ao uso da terra. Um dos grandes desafios no campo da ACV refere-se diferenciação espacial e temporal nos métodos de AICV, sobretudo para impactos devido à transformação e ocupação da terra. Torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de modelos de caracterização e/ou adaptação daqueles já existentes de maneira que possam considerar as características ambientais regionais de cada país, visando à obtenção de resultados mais consistentes e precisos. Assim, este trabalho tem o objetivo de analisar a aplicabilidade e a regionalização dos principais modelos de caracterização de impactos do uso da terra para a Avaliação do Impacto do Ciclo de Vida no Brasil. Para tanto foi conduzida uma revisão bibliográfica sistemática, a qual subsidiou a descrição e análise de dezesseis principais modelos de caracterização para avaliação de impactos do uso da terra. Durante a etapa de análise, as informações referentes a cada modelo foram classificadas de acordo com diferentes critérios, como: abordagem midpoint/endpoint, área de cobertura, área de coleta dos dados, diferenciação bio-geográfica, tempo de recuperação, situação de referência, robustez científica e relevância ambiental. Observou-se que seis modelos, de abrangência de aplicação global, apresentam robustez científica e relevância ambiental satisfatória para a avaliação dos impactos nos serviços ecossistêmicos e na biodiversidade: Brandão & Milà i Canals (2013); Müller-Wenk & Brandão (2010); Nunez et al. (2010); Saad, Koellner, Margni (2013); Souza (2010); Souza et al. (2013). Outra contribuição do trabalho refere-se às recomendações para a adaptação de modelos de caracterização, visando a regionalização, para a qual uma série de elementos-chave deve ser considerada, tais como o mecanismo ambiental modelado, a tipologia de uso do solo, o nível de diferenciação bio-geográfica usado para o cálculo dos fatores de caracterização e a situação de referência utilizada. / The main technique for assessing the environmental impacts of the product life cycle is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). One of its phases, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) refers to quantitative and / or qualitative process applied to the characterization and assessment of impacts associated with the life cycle inventory. Among the environmental impacts evaluated in LCA are those related to land use. A major challenge in the field of LCA refers to spatial and temporal differentiation in LCIA methods, especially for impacts due to land occupation and land transformation. It becomes necessary to develop models for the characterization and / or adapting existing ones so that they can consider regional environmental characteristics of each country, in order to obtain more consistent and accurate results. Therefore, this work aims to analyze the applicability and regionalization of the land use impacts characterization models in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment in Brazil. To achieve that, a systematic literature review was performed, which subsidized the description and analysis of sixteen major characterization models for land use impact assessment. During the analysis, the information regarding each model were classified according to different criteria, such as midpoint/ endpoint approach, coverage area, area of data collection, bio-geographical differentiation, recovery time, reference land use situation, scientific robustness and environmental relevance. It was observed that six models, with a global scope, present scientific robustness and environmental relevance sufficient for the assessment of impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services: Brandão & Milà i Canals (2013); Müller-Wenk & Brandão (2010); Nunez et al. (2010); Saad, Koellner, Margni (2013); Souza (2010); Souza et al. (2013). Another contribution of this work were the recommendations for adapting characterization models, for which a number of key elements must be considered, such as the modelled land use impact pathways, the land use typology, the level of bio-geographical differentiation used for the characterization factors and the reference land use situation.

Os produtos podem causar impactos negativos ao meio ambiente em uma das suas etapas do ciclo de vida, quais sejam: aquisição de matéria-prima, fabricação, distribuição, uso e disposição final. A integração dos aspectos ambientais no projeto e no desenvolvimento de produto busca prevenir e minimizar os possíveis impactos ao longo de seu ciclo de vida. Esses impactos variam quanto à categoria, magnitude, extensão e duração. A principal metodologia para avaliar os impactos ambientais do ciclo de vida do produto é a Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Contudo há diversos métodos e formas de aplicações desta metodologia. O primeiro objetivo é identificar os principais métodos da ACV, por meio de uma revisão sistemática, O segundo é realizar um estudo de caso comparativo da ACV entre dois tipos de cestos (de plástico e de aço inox) utilizados nas lavadoras de roupas automáticas, identificando os potenciais impactos ambientais, baseado no método EDIP. Os principais métodos identificados na revisão sistemática foram: Ecoindicator 99, EPS, CML Ecological Footprint e EDIP. A comparação do ciclo de vida dos dois cestos demonstra que, para as categorias de impactos de potencial de aquecimento global, acidificação, eutrofização, ecotoxidade e toxidade humana, o cesto inox tem uma maior contribuição para os potencias impactos ambientais em relação ao cesto de plástico, principalmente devido à maior distância transportada da matéria-prima do aço até a fabricação do cesto. / The products can cause negative impacts to the environment in one of their stages of the life cycle, which are: raw material acquisition, production, distribution, use and final disposition. The integration of the environmental aspects in the project and in the product development it looks for to prevent and to minimize the possible impacts along his life cycle. Those impacts vary as for the category, magnitude, extension and duration. The main methodology to evaluate the environmental impacts of the life cycle of the product is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). However there are several methods and forms of applications of this methodology. The first objective is to identify the main methods of LCA, through a systematic revision, THE second is to accomplish a study of comparative case of LCA among two types of baskets (of plastic and of stainless steel) used in the washers of automatic clothes, identifying the potentials environmental impacts, based on the method EDIP. The main identified methods in the systematic revision were: Echo-indicator 99, EPS, CML Ecological Footprint and EDIP. The comparison of the cycle of life of the two baskets demonstrates that, for the categories of impacts of potential of global warming, acidification, nutrient enrichment, ecotoxicity and human toxicity, the basket stainless steel has a larger contribution for the potencies environmental impacts in relation to the basket of plastic, mainly due to the largest transported distance of the raw material of the steel to the production of the basket.

Foi construído um modelo representativo do ciclo de vida da água em uma refinaria de petróleo, contemplando todos os usos a que esta se presta. Nesse contexto foram avaliados do ponto de vista ambiental, energético e econômico cenários em que etapas adicionais eram incorporadas ao tratamento de efluentes de forma a viabilizar o reúso de água e o fechamento do circuito na própria refinaria, reduzindo assim a necessidade de captação e, consequentemente, de tratamento da água bruta captada pela refinaria. O Cenário I corresponde ao cenário-base, sem implantação de nenhuma ação voltada ao reúso. No Cenário II, é incorporada a etapa adicional chamada Tratamento Fase 1, constituída por um processo de Clarificação seguido de uma Eletrodiálise Reversa (EDR) que permite o reúso de 255,7 m3/h dos 350 m3/h lançados inicialmente ao corpo hídrico no Cenário I. No Cenário III, é incorporada ao arranjo do Cenário II uma etapa de Cristalização Evaporativa para tratar o concentrado salino da EDR, recuperando, assim, mais 55,4 m3/h dos 350 m3/h lançados inicialmente, utilizando, para isso, vapor residual inicialmente não aproveitado pela refinaria. A análise ambiental foi desenvolvida por Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV) e constatou um desempenho muito semelhante dos três cenários. Apesar disso, a análise em perfil aberto, de impactos de midpoint, evidenciou ganhos ambientais significativos associados ao fechamento de circuito de água e, embora com vantagens muito discretas, o Cenário III apresentou um desempenho superior ao do Cenário II em todas as categorias e, na grande maioria delas, também superior ao desempenho do Cenário I. A análise de indicador único, em endpoint, destacou o impacto em Mudança Climática, relativo principalmente à queima de gás natural na caldeira para a geração de vapor, como o principal impacto ambiental associado ao ciclo de vida da água na refinaria, responsável por mais de 90% do valor correspondente ao resultado do indicador único. A análise energética foi desenvolvida utilizando-se o indicador de Demanda Cumulativa de Energia (CED) e resultou em um desempenho superior do Cenário I, ainda que com pequenas diferenças em relação aos Cenários II e III. O pior desempenho foi o do Cenário II. Comparando-se a contribuição relativa dos diferentes tipos de energia, destaca-se a energia de origem hidrelétrica, responsável por cerca de 80% do indicador único de CED em todos os três cenários. A análise econômica foi realizada por meio de indicadores tradicionalmente utilizados para a análise de viabilidade de projetos Taxa Interna de Retorno (TIR) e Valor Presente Líquido (VPL) , considerando, como referência, as regras de cobrança pelo uso da água vigentes na bacia do rio Paraíba do Sul. Com os preços cobrados atualmente pelo uso da água desta bacia, a implantação de ambos os cenários de reúso (II e III) não se viabiliza economicamente. Para que isso ocorra, o valor cobrado pelo uso da água teria que ser da ordem de 50 a 80 vezes maior do que o que é cobrado atualmente. Dentre os cenários de reúso, o Cenário II apresentou desempenho econômico superior ao do Cenário III. / It was built a representative model of the water life cycle within a petroleum refinery, considering all the uses in which it is applied. In this context, under environmental, energetic and economic perspective, different scenarios were analyzed, where further treatment stages were added to the wastewater treatment process so that recycled water could be provided back to the refining process, reducing, therefore, the need for freshwater intake and pretreatment by the refinery. Scenario I is the base scenario, without implementation of any water reuse aimed action. In Scenario II, it is incorporated the additional stage called Phase 1 Treatment, which consists of a Clarification process followed by an Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR).This enables the recycling of 255.7 m3/h from the 350 m3/h previously discharged to the water body in Scenario I. In Scenario III, it is incorporated to the Scenario II setting an Evaporative Crystallization process for treating the concentrated brine resulting from the EDR process. This enables the recovery of more 55.4 m3/h from the 350 m3/h initially released, using, for that, the energy from residual steam previously not used by the refinery. The environmental analysis was developed through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and found very similar performances for all three scenarios. Despite that, the open profile analysis, of midpoint impacts, showed significant environmental gains from the closure of the water circuit and, though with very small advantages, Scenario III showed a better performance than Scenario II in all impact categories and, in most of them, also better than Scenario I performance. The single score analysis, considering endpoint impact categories, highlighted Climate Change, specially related to the natural gas burning in the boiler for steam generation, as the main impact category associated to the water life cycle within the refinery, being responsible for more than 90% of all the value of the single score indicator. The energetic analysis was developed using the Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) indicator and resulted in a better performance of Scenario I, even if with just small differences from Scenarios II and III. The worst performance was from Scenario II. Comparing the relative contribution of the different types of energy, the hydroelectricity was the most important one, being responsible for around 80% of the CED single score in all three scenarios. The economic analysis was developed through traditional indicators used for assessing projects viability Internal Return Rate (IRR) and Net Present Value (NPV), considering, as reference, the rules of charging for water use valid nowadays at the Paraíba do Sul river basin. With the prices charged nowadays for the water use from this basin, the implementation of both reuse scenarios is not economic viable. In order to make it viable, the charged value would have to be around 50 to 80 times higher than it is today. Among the reuse scenarios, Scenario II had a better economic performance than Scenario III.

A Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV) é uma ferramenta da gestão ambiental que identifica os aspectos ambientais e avalia os impactos ambientais associados aos produtos, durante todo o seu ciclo de vida, em outras palavras, do berço ao túmulo. O ciclo de vida inicia-se quando todos os recursos requeridos (sejam eles materiais ou energéticos) para a manufatura de determinado produto são extraídos da natureza e finaliza-se após o cumprimento da função pelo produto, retornando ao meio ambiente. Devido à quantidade de dados que necessita ser coletada, um estudo de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida somente torna-se viável caso exista a disponibilidade de um banco de dados nacional constituído por inventários do ciclo de vida dos principais insumos empregados pela sociedade - matérias primas, energia, etc. Estes inventários possuem caráter de regionalidade e representatividade, podendo tornar novos estudos mais completos, confiáveis e fáceis de serem concluídos. A ACV vem assumindo uma importância a nível global, o Brasil vem se aprimorando na capacitação e uso desta técnica. O GP2 - Grupo de Prevenção da Poluição do Departamento de Engenharia Química da Escola Politécnica da USP, tem como seu principal objetivo a contribuição para o aprimoramento de recursos humanos necessários e consolidação do uso da ACV no Brasil. Desse modo, as atividades do GP2 têm se concentrado na construção de um banco de dados que deve ser adequado, obrigatoriamente, às condições regionais. O presente estudo está inserido nessa linha de pesquisa e tem como propósito a elaboração do Inventário do Ciclo de Vida (ICV) para o papel offset produzido no Brasil. O papel offset pertence a categoria de papéis de imprimir e, atualmente, representa o tipo de papel mais produzido no país. O resultado deste estudo consiste em um inventário consolidado dos aspectos ambientais considerados significativos para a produção da madeira, a extração da celulose, a fabricação do papel offset e outros subsistemas associados, sob as condições tecnológicas típicas dominantes no Brasil. A qualidade do estudo está intrinsecamente ligada à cadeia produtiva do papel offset, que se baseou primordialmente em dados primários. Os resultados do estudo mostraram-se coerentes com um estudo parcial realizado no Chile. Uma análise mais apurada para os resultados encontrados no estudo, com base em pesquisas internacionais, não se fez necessária, considerando as diferenças tecnológicas e de matérias-primas empregadas no ciclo de vida do papel de outros países. / The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool for the environmental management which identifies its aspects and evaluates its environmental impacts related to the products during its whole life cycle. In other words, a cycle that goes from cradle to grave. The life cycle begins when all the required resources (material or energetic) to manufacture a certain product are extracted from the nature and it ends after accomplishing its function, returning to the environment. Due to the amount of data to be collected, a study of the life cycle assessment is only viable in case there is a national data base available formed by inventories of the main input used by the society, such as raw material, energy, and so on. These inventories have a regional and representative character, allowing new studies to be fuller, more reliable and easier to be concluded. The LCA has taken on a world wise importance. Brazil has been improving its competence and usage of such technique. The GP2 - Preventing Pollution Group from the Chemical Engineering Department of Escola Politécnica at USP - has as its primal objective the contribution to an improvement of necessary Human Resources and the consolidation of the LCA usage. In this manner, GP2 activities have to be focused on a data base construction, which should be compulsorily adequate to the regional conditions. The present study is inserted in such line of research and has as its purpose the elaboration on a Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) for the offset paper made in Brazil. The offset paper belongs to the printing paper category and, lately, represents the most used type of paper in this country. The result of such study consists in a solid inventory of the environmental aspects considered meaningful for wood production, cellulose extraction, offset paper manufacture and other related subsystems under typical predominant technological conditions in Brazil. The quality of this study is significantly related to the production chain of the offset paper, which was based mainly on primary data. The results of this study showed to be coherent to the ones achieved in a Chilean study, even though they were partial results. A more refined analysis on the pursued results in the study, based on international researches, isn't necessary, considering the technological differences and raw material used in the paper life cycle in other countries.

A infraestrutura de transportes traz benefícios sociais e econômicos, porém traz também inevitáveis impactos ambientais que não podem ser negligenciados, como supressão da vegetação local e poluição atmosférica. Esses impactos ambientais podem ser quantificados e analisados pela técnica Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV), que cria a possibilidade de contemplar o aspecto ambiental na tomada de decisões e pode trazer melhor compreensão da cadeia produtiva. Na última década, é crescente a utilização dessa técnica na área de pavimentação, entretanto ainda é pouco usual no Brasil. O objetivo dessa dissertação é avaliar os impactos ambientais produzidos por duas técnicas de restauração de pavimentos asfálticos, comparando-se os resultados de ACV que observaram as fases de produção de materiais e de transportes. Dois cenários de restauração foram estudados, o primeiro considerou uma mistura asfáltica composta exclusivamente por materiais virgens (restauração convencional), e o segundo, considerou uma mistura asfáltica composta por 35% de Reciclado de Pavimento Asfáltico (RPA). As ACV foram procedidas de três maneiras distintas: (a) com o banco de dados e software alemão GaBi e o método EDIP 1997, (b) com o banco de dados da USLCI e pelo método do EDIP 1997, e (c) com software PavementLCA e o método TRACI. Os resultados obtidos a partir dos três diferentes procedimentos indicaram que a restauração com RPA apresentou redução dos impactos ambientais potencias quando comparada com a restauração convencional. Observou-se também que, para a maioria das análises, a atividade que mais contribuiu para os impactos das duas estratégias de restauração foi a de produção dos materiais. A análise de sensibilidade dos resultados obtidos com o GaBi e com o USLCI mostrou diferenças consideráveis, causadas pelas diferentes fontes de dados. Apesar de ser uma técnica em crescimento, a ACV ainda apresenta limitações quando aplicada a pavimentos, sobretudo, pela complexidade de seu ciclo de vida e pelas incertezas que envolvem sua elaboração, assim, estudos sobre ACV devem continuar, a fim de padronizar a técnica para a área e, com o tempo, obter resultados cada vez mais precisos. / Transportation infrastructure brings social and economic benefits, but it also brings unavoidable environmental impacts that can not be neglected, such as suppression of local vegetation and air pollution. These environmental impacts can be quantified and analyzed by the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technique, which creates the possibility of contemplating the environmental aspect in decision making and can provide a better understanding of the production chain. In the last decade, the use of this technique in the area of pavement is increasing, although not very usual in Brazil. The goal of this thesis is to analyze the environmental impacts produced by two asphalt pavement rehabilitation techniques, comparing the LCA results of material production and transportation phases. Two rehabilitation scenarios were studied, the first one considering an asphalt mixture composed exclusively by raw materials (conventional rehabilitation), and the second one considered an asphalt mixture composed by 35% of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP). The LCA was done in three different ways: (a) with the German database and software GaBi and the EDIP 1997 method, (b) with the USLCI database and the EDIP 1997 method, and (c) with PavementLCA software and the TRACI method. The results obtained from the three different procedures indicated that the rehabilitation with RPA showed reduction of the potential environmental impacts when compared with the conventional rehabilitation. It was also observed that for the majority of the analysis, the activity that contributed the most to the impacts of the two rehabilitation strategies was the material production one. The sensitivity analysis of the results obtained with GaBi and with USLCI showed considerable differences in their values, caused by the different data sources. Although it is a growing technique, LCA still presents limitations when applied to pavements, mainly due to the complexity of its life cycle and the uncertainties involved in its elaboration, so studies about LCA should continue with the aim of standardizing the technique for the area and, over time, achieve increasingly more accurate results.

Os resíduos sólidos urbanos são um dos grandes problemas da sociedade atual. Nesse sentido é necessário discutir soluções para o destino dos resíduos gerados diariamente, cada vez mais em maior quantidade, sendo imperativo avançar na busca de alternativas, não só na busca de novas tecnologias e soluções, como também o aprimoramento das metodologias hoje empregadas para resolver este relevante problema, especialmente nos grande centros urbanos. Esta dissertação expõe o resultado de uma avaliação econômico-ambiental comparativa realizada por meio de uma metodologia desenvolvida pela BASF, entre duas potenciais tecnologias: aterro sanitário e a incineração com recuperação de energia. Para viabilizar o trabalho, as informações utilizadas foram tanto de dados reais aterro sanitário e incinerador Essencis Soluções Ambientais S.A., (assumindo algumas premissas) quanto a utilização de dados secundários, utilizando o estudo de Arena et al., 2003. Esta ferramenta de Análise de Ecoeficiência abrange a metodologia de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV), que é uma técnica para avaliar as entradas e saídas de matéria e energia e os impactos ambientais potenciais associados a todas as etapas de extração de recursos e suas transformações, além do uso e disposição final do produto. Os dados obtidos na avaliação ambiental são apresentados segundo as categorias principais, usando um método de ponderação desenvolvido pela BASF e compreendem o consumo de recursos naturais, consumo de recursos energéticos, emissões para o ar, água e solo, potencial de toxicidade humana, acidentes do trabalho, doenças ocupacionais e uso da terra. A avaliação econômica, neste trabalho, levou em consideração os custos envolvidos na operação e manutenção das técnicas de disposição ou tratamento dos resíduos sólidos urbanos. O estudo comparativo considerou a disposição ou tratamento de 7.324.109.000 quilogramas de resíduos sólidos urbanos. Como resultado, a matriz de ecoeficiência aponta que o incinerador é a alternativa que mais se destaca, considerando o perfil ambiental e econômico, dentro das premissas adotadas neste estudo e levando-se em consideração que é uma técnica com aproveitamento de energia. / Municipal solid waste is one of the major problems of modern society. In this sense it is necessary to discuss solutions to the fate of waste generated daily, increasingly in larger amounts, being imperative to advance the search for alternatives, not only in search of new technologies and solutions, as well as the improvement of methodologies currently employed to solve this relevant issue, especially in large urban centers. This paper presents the results of a comparative economic-environmental assessment performed by a method developed by BASF, two potential technologies: landfill and incineration with energy recovery. To facilitate the work, the information used were both real data - landfill and incinerator - Essencis Soluções Ambientais S.A., (assuming some assumptions) and the use of secondary data, using the study of Arena et al., 2003. This Ecoefficiency Analysis tool covers the methodology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which is a technique to evaluate the inputs and outputs of matter and energy and the potential environmental impacts associated with all stages of resource extraction and their transformations , and the use and final disposal of the product. The data in the environmental assessment are presented according to major categories, using a weighting method developed by BASF and understand the consumption of natural resources, consumption of energy resources, air emissions, water and soil, potential for human toxicity, accidents work, occupational diseases and land use. Economic evaluation in this work took into account the costs involved in operation and maintenance of disposal techniques or treatment of waste. The comparative study found the treatment or disposal of 7.324109 billion kilograms of waste. As a result, the array of eco-efficiency indicates that the incinerator is the alternative that stands out, considering the environmental and economic profile, within the assumptions made in this study and taking into account which is a technique with energy recovery.

Os resíduos sólidos urbanos são um dos grandes problemas da sociedade atual. Nesse sentido é necessário discutir soluções para o destino dos resíduos gerados diariamente, cada vez mais em maior quantidade, sendo imperativo avançar na busca de alternativas, não só na busca de novas tecnologias e soluções, como também o aprimoramento das metodologias hoje empregadas para resolver este relevante problema, especialmente nos grande centros urbanos. Esta dissertação expõe o resultado de uma avaliação econômico-ambiental comparativa realizada por meio de uma metodologia desenvolvida pela BASF, entre duas potenciais tecnologias: aterro sanitário e a incineração com recuperação de energia. Para viabilizar o trabalho, as informações utilizadas foram tanto de dados reais aterro sanitário e incinerador Essencis Soluções Ambientais S.A., (assumindo algumas premissas) quanto a utilização de dados secundários, utilizando o estudo de Arena et al., 2003. Esta ferramenta de Análise de Ecoeficiência abrange a metodologia de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV), que é uma técnica para avaliar as entradas e saídas de matéria e energia e os impactos ambientais potenciais associados a todas as etapas de extração de recursos e suas transformações, além do uso e disposição final do produto. Os dados obtidos na avaliação ambiental são apresentados segundo as categorias principais, usando um método de ponderação desenvolvido pela BASF e compreendem o consumo de recursos naturais, consumo de recursos energéticos, emissões para o ar, água e solo, potencial de toxicidade humana, acidentes do trabalho, doenças ocupacionais e uso da terra. A avaliação econômica, neste trabalho, levou em consideração os custos envolvidos na operação e manutenção das técnicas de disposição ou tratamento dos resíduos sólidos urbanos. O estudo comparativo considerou a disposição ou tratamento de 7.324.109.000 quilogramas de resíduos sólidos urbanos. Como resultado, a matriz de ecoeficiência aponta que o incinerador é a alternativa que mais se destaca, considerando o perfil ambiental e econômico, dentro das premissas adotadas neste estudo e levando-se em consideração que é uma técnica com aproveitamento de energia. / Municipal solid waste is one of the major problems of modern society. In this sense it is necessary to discuss solutions to the fate of waste generated daily, increasingly in larger amounts, being imperative to advance the search for alternatives, not only in search of new technologies and solutions, as well as the improvement of methodologies currently employed to solve this relevant issue, especially in large urban centers. This paper presents the results of a comparative economic-environmental assessment performed by a method developed by BASF, two potential technologies: landfill and incineration with energy recovery. To facilitate the work, the information used were both real data - landfill and incinerator - Essencis Soluções Ambientais S.A., (assuming some assumptions) and the use of secondary data, using the study of Arena et al., 2003. This Ecoefficiency Analysis tool covers the methodology of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which is a technique to evaluate the inputs and outputs of matter and energy and the potential environmental impacts associated with all stages of resource extraction and their transformations , and the use and final disposal of the product. The data in the environmental assessment are presented according to major categories, using a weighting method developed by BASF and understand the consumption of natural resources, consumption of energy resources, air emissions, water and soil, potential for human toxicity, accidents work, occupational diseases and land use. Economic evaluation in this work took into account the costs involved in operation and maintenance of disposal techniques or treatment of waste. The comparative study found the treatment or disposal of 7.324109 billion kilograms of waste. As a result, the array of eco-efficiency indicates that the incinerator is the alternative that stands out, considering the environmental and economic profile, within the assumptions made in this study and taking into account which is a technique with energy recovery.

Among efforts to develop sustainable approaches towards the intensive rearing of finfish within open marine waters, is the development of integrated aquaculture techniques. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA), has been promoted as a way to reduce unwanted environmental impacts associated with the intensive production of marine finfish within net-pens. The principle aim of this concept, is the bioremediation of nutrient discharges from fish aquaculture. This is to be achieved by integrating fish cultivation with the growing of species from lower trophic levels, which use the nutrient discharges as a food source. Many studies have been performed that investigate the ability of various species of macroalgae to remove dissolved nutrient discharges, and the ability bivalves to remove solid-bound nutrients, presented as either fish faeces, or an enhanced production of phytoplankton that may be promoted by nutrients emitted by fish-farms. IMTA has also been suggested as a means to improve overall productivity per unit of feed applied to fish, through the conversion of nutrient emissions into additional biomass, such as the tissues of macroalgae or bivalves. Within the research community which focuses upon the environmental impacts of aquaculture, there is a growing awareness that sustainable solutions to aquaculture production cannot be realised through a focus restricted to the growing-phase, and to a limited set of environmental impacts which may this activity may produce. This is because changes to a specific production phase often promote changes at phases located elsewhere along a products value chain. Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA), is a method employed for modelling the environmental impacts that may potentially be generated across the value chain of a product. It is particularly useful for identifying instances of environmental impact shifting; a term used to describe situations where efforts to reduce the contribution of a specific production phase towards one or more environmental impacts, has the effect of either displacing this contribution to another phase, or increases the contribution of production towards different environmental impacts. Despite its apparent suitability, LCA has not previously been fully applied to the environmental impact modelling of open-water IMTA systems. The work presented in the following thesis advances this research front, by using LCA to explore the potential for environmental problem shifting occurring as a consequence of replacing intensive monoculture production, with IMTA. Comprehensive datasets have been acquired from the Chilean aquaculture industry, describing the production of aquafeed and Salmo salar, as well as for the production of the Phaeophytic macroalga, Macrocystis pyrifera, and the molluscan bivalve, Mytilus chilensis. Using LCA methodology, the production of salmon feed, and the production of S.salar, M.pyrifera and M.chilensis, have been assessed for their capacity to contribute towards a variety of global-scale, environmental impacts. IMTA consisting of either S.salar and M.pyrifera, S.salar and M.chilensis, or all three of these species, and combined at ratios required for a bioremediation efficiency of 100 %, 50%, or 20 % of either nitrogen or phosphorous emission from fish, is compared to the monoculture production of S.salar. The comparison is based upon a standardised functional unit, with each species produced through IMTA, being modelled as part of the reference flow required to fulfil the functional unit. Monoculture is compared to IMTA upon the basis of nutritional function, by using a functional unit of mass-adjusted protein content, and mass-adjusted economic value. The use of economic value is based upon the ‘best-case’ assumption, that it serves as a proxy for the total nutritional function that each product offers to human society. The LCAs presented in this study have produced a number of results. Salmon ingredients derived from agricultural crops and animals account for the majority (between 71 % to 98 %) of contributions towards the impacts of compound salmon feed. In general, agricultural crops ingredients contribute more to these impacts than do agricultural animal ingredients, and account for between 31 % and 87 % of the contributions from all ingredients and inputs. In contrast, the combined supply of fish meal and fish oil from capture fisheries is responsible for between 0.13 % and 11 % of all impacts. Vegetable oil accounts for the vast majority of contributions from ingredients derived from agricultural crops. Vegetable oil is modelled as a 50 : 50 blend of sunflower oil and rapeseed, oil, but sunflower oil accounts not only for most of the contributions from vegetable oil, it is responsible for over 50 % of the contributions that all agricultural crop based ingredients contributes towards some impact categories. Replacing sunflower oil with rapeseed oil reduces the contributions of salmon feed by between 6 % and 24 % across 10 out of the 11 impact categories. When compared upon the basis of equal weight, the contributions of fish oil are between 18 % and 99 % lower than those from rapeseed oil. The production of feed is responsible for the majority of contributions (between 32 % and 86 % ) to all impacts of salmon grow-out production. The production of salmon-smolts accounts for between 3 % and 18 %. The majority (64 %) of contributions towards the eutrophication potential of salmon production are from nutrient emissions, which are the result of fish metabolism, whilst nutrients released through the production of feed, the majority of these being from the agricultural production of crop and animals, account for 32 %. Feed production is also a major contributor to the impacts of land-based smolt production, but these contributions (between 12 % and 37 % across all impact categories) are of a lower magnitude than those from the supply of feed to the grow-out phase. Inputs of salt, and inputs of both electricity produced in a diesel power generator and obtained from the national electricity network, are also notable contributors (between 5 % and 67 %, 4 % and 29 %, and 2 % 47 %, respectively) towards the impacts of smolt-production. The main contributors towards the potential impacts of kelp grow-out production (excluding eutrophication potential) are the supply of infrastructure (between 14 % and 89 %), operation of a diesel-powered motorboat for maintenance purposes (between 1 % and 89 %), and the supply ‘of seeded cartridges’ (between 9 and 49 %). The major contributors from the production of ‘seeded cartriges’ in a land-based facility are the supply of electricity from the national electricity network, the supply of fresh water, and the treatment of waste water. The impact potentials of producing seed in this facility might be reduced if the scale of operation is increased. Removal of nitrogen and phosphorous upon the harvesting of kelp is calculated based upon kelp tissue contents of these nutrients. The harvesting of 200 tonnes ha / yr-1, results in a eutrophic potential with a negative value (-376.51 kg of phosphate equivalents). The removal of such a quantity of nutrients might be beneficial if the local marine environment is at risk of hypernutrification, but when no such problem is present, the potential for undesirable consequences of nutrient sequestration should be considered. The major contributor towards the impacts of mussels is the provision of infrastructure (between 25 % and 99.5 %, excluding eutrophication potential). Infrastructure is also responsible for the majority of contributions from mussel seed production. The provision of cotton mesh bags, which are used to aid attatchment of seed to drop-ropes in the grow-out phase, account for between 37% and 99 % of the contributions from the infrastructure from the grow-out phase. This result suggest that either the impacts of mussel production can be reduced by using an alternative material with lower environmental impact potentials, or the inventory data describing the producing of cottonmesh bags requires some improvement. The outcomes of the LCAs of the different IMTA scenarios, are interesting. The results show that choice of species, and the ratios of their combination as required for the different efficiencies of bioremediation, can have a significant effect upon the comparison between IMTA and monoculture. / The study demonstrates a potential for environmental problem shifting as being a consequence of IMTA, especially when the functional unit is mass-adjusted economic value. As bioremediation efficiency increases, contributions towards eutrophication decrease. However, this reduction is achieved at the cost of increasing the contributions of IMTA towards those impact categories, such as ‘ozone layer depletion,’ for which it has a greater contribution than does monoculture. In general, it cannot be concluded from these results that open-water IMTA represents a more sustainable alternative to the monoculture production of Atlantic salmon. The sustainability of IMTA is shown to be dependent upon a variety of trade-offs, between individual environmental impacts, and between these impacts and the nutritional function that the system is capable of providing.